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Liu Y, Zhang X, Gu W, Su H, Wang X, Wang X, Zhang J, Xu M, Sheng W. Unlocking the Crucial Role of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Tumor Metastasis: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Prospects. J Adv Res 2024:S2090-1232(24)00220-0. [PMID: 38825314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2024.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor metastasis represents a stepwise progression and stands as a principal determinant of unfavorable prognoses among cancer patients. Consequently, an in-depth exploration of its mechanisms holds paramount clinical significance. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), constituting the most abundant stromal cell population within the tumor microenvironment (TME), have garnered robust evidence support for their pivotal regulatory roles in tumor metastasis. AIM of Review This review systematically explores the roles of CAFs at eight critical stages of tumorigenic dissemination: 1) extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, 2) epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), 3) angiogenesis, 4) tumor metabolism, 5) perivascular migration, 6) immune escape, 7) dormancy, and 8) premetastatic niche (PMN) formation. Additionally, we provide a compendium of extant strategies aimed at targeting CAFs in cancer therapy. Key Scientific Concepts of Review This review delineates a structured framework for the interplay between CAFs and tumor metastasis while furnishing insights for the potential therapeutic developments. It contributes to a deeper understanding of cancer metastasis within the TME, facilitating the utilization of CAF-targeting therapies in anti-metastatic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingxue Liu
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wenchao Gu
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hui Su
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jiayu Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Midie Xu
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Weiqi Sheng
- Department of Pathology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Pathology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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Zhang Z, Chen X, Gao S, Fang X, Ren S. 3D bioprinted tumor model: a prompt and convenient platform for overcoming immunotherapy resistance by recapitulating the tumor microenvironment. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2024:10.1007/s13402-024-00935-9. [PMID: 38520648 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-024-00935-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cancer immunotherapy is receiving worldwide attention for its induction of an anti-tumor response. However, it has had limited efficacy in some patients who acquired resistance. The dynamic and sophisticated complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is the leading contributor to this clinical dilemma. Through recapitulating the physiological features of the TME, 3D bioprinting is a promising research tool for cancer immunotherapy, which preserves in vivo malignant aggressiveness, heterogeneity, and the cell-cell/matrix interactions. It has been reported that application of 3D bioprinting holds potential to address the challenges of immunotherapy resistance and facilitate personalized medication. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES In this review, we briefly summarize the contributions of cellular and noncellular components of the TME in the development of immunotherapy resistance, and introduce recent advances in 3D bioprinted tumor models that served as platforms to study the interactions between tumor cells and the TME. By constructing multicellular 3D bioprinted tumor models, cellular and noncellular crosstalk is reproduced between tumor cells, immune cells, fibroblasts, adipocytes, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) within the TME. In the future, by quickly preparing 3D bioprinted tumor models with patient-derived components, information on tumor immunotherapy resistance can be obtained timely for clinical reference. The combined application with tumoroid or other 3D culture technologies will also help to better simulate the complexity and dynamics of tumor microenvironment in vitro. We aim to provide new perspectives for overcoming cancer immunotherapy resistance and inspire multidisciplinary research to improve the clinical application of 3D bioprinting technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanyi Zhang
- Bethune Third Clinical Medical College, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Xuebo Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal, Colorectal and Anal Surgery, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, NO. 126, Xiantai Street, Changchun, 130033, China
| | - Sujie Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130033, China
| | - Xuedong Fang
- Department of Gastrointestinal, Colorectal and Anal Surgery, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, NO. 126, Xiantai Street, Changchun, 130033, China.
| | - Shengnan Ren
- Department of Breast Surgery, Peking University Cancer Hospital Yunnan, Yunnan Cancer Hospital, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, NO. 519, Kunzhou Street, Kunming, 650118, China.
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Li H, Li Y, Zhang Y, Tan B, Huang T, Xiong J, Tan X, Ermolaeva MA, Fu L. MAPK10 Expression as a Prognostic Marker of the Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Front Oncol 2021; 11:687371. [PMID: 34408980 PMCID: PMC8366563 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.687371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a devastating malignancy worldwide due to lack of effective therapy. The immune-rich contexture of HCC tumor microenvironment (TME) makes this tumor an appealing target for immune-based therapies; however, the immunosuppressive TME is still a major challenge for more efficient immunotherapy in HCC. Using bioinformatics analysis based on the TCGA database, here we found that MAPK10 is frequently down-regulated in HCC tumors and significantly correlates with poor survival of HCC patients. HCC patients with low MAPK10 expression have lower expression scores of tumor infiltration lymphocytes (TILs) and stromal cells in the TME and increased scores of tumor cells than those with high MAPK10 expression. Further transcriptomic analyses revealed that the immune activity in the TME of HCC was markedly reduced in the low-MAPK10 group of HCC patients compared to the high-MAPK10 group. Additionally, we identified 495 differentially expressed immune-associated genes (DIGs), with 482 genes down-regulated and 13 genes up-regulated in parallel with the decrease of MAPK10 expression. GO enrichment and KEGG pathway analyses indicated that the biological functions of these DIGs included cell chemotaxis, leukocyte migration and positive regulation of the response to cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction, T cell receptor activation and MAPK signaling pathway. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) analyses of the 495 DIGs revealed five potential downstream hub genes of MAPK10, including SYK, CBL, VAV1, LCK, and CD3G. Several hub genes such as SYK, LCK, and VAV1 could respond to the immunological costimulatory signaling mediated by the transmembrane protein ICAM1, which was identified as a down-regulated DIG associated with low-MAPK10 expression. Moreover, ectopic overexpression or knock-down of MAPK10 could up-regulate or down-regulate ICAM1 expression via phosphorylation of c-jun at Ser63 in HCC cell lines, respectively. Collectively, our results demonstrated that MAPK10 down-regulation likely contributes to the immunosuppressive TME of HCC, and this gene might serve as a potential immunotherapeutic target and a prognostic factor for HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huahui Li
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China.,Group of Homeostasis and Stress Tolerance, Leibniz Institute on Aging-Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany.,Shenzhen University-Friedrich Schiller Universitat Jena Joint PhD Program in Biomedical Sciences, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuting Li
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China.,Group of Homeostasis and Stress Tolerance, Leibniz Institute on Aging-Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany.,Shenzhen University-Friedrich Schiller Universitat Jena Joint PhD Program in Biomedical Sciences, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Binbin Tan
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Tuxiong Huang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jixian Xiong
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiangyu Tan
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Maria A Ermolaeva
- Group of Homeostasis and Stress Tolerance, Leibniz Institute on Aging-Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Li Fu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and Shenzhen University International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
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Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Versatile Players in the Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12092652. [PMID: 32957515 PMCID: PMC7564346 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12092652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are key players in the tumor microenvironment. They are responsible for potentiating growth and metastasis through versatile functions, including maintenance of the extracellular matrix, blood vessel formation, modulation of tumor metabolism, suppression of antitumor immunity, and promotion of chemotherapy resistance. As such, CAFs are associated with poor prognosis and have emerged as a focus of anticancer research. In this review, we discuss the origins of CAFs, their heterogenous subtypes and their properties. We then detail the current state of preclinical and clinical research targeting CAF activities. We believe the limited efficacy of current cancer therapeutic approaches is driven by an incomplete understanding of CAF functions and by a nonstandardized CAF classification system. Therefore, we suggest a unified CAF classification based on specific functions to develop a new class of therapies that will focus on targeting the pro-tumorigenic properties of CAFs during tumor progression. Abstract Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are indispensable architects of the tumor microenvironment. They perform the essential functions of extracellular matrix deposition, stromal remodeling, tumor vasculature modulation, modification of tumor metabolism, and participation in crosstalk between cancer and immune cells. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of the principal differences between normal fibroblasts and CAFs, the origin of CAFs, their functions, and ultimately, highlight the intimate connection of CAFs to virtually all of the hallmarks of cancer. We address the remarkable degree of functional diversity and phenotypic plasticity displayed by CAFs and strive to stratify CAF biology among different tumor types into practical functional groups. Finally, we summarize the status of recent and ongoing trials of CAF-directed therapies and contend that the paucity of trials resulting in Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals thus far is a consequence of the failure to identify targets exclusive of pro-tumorigenic CAF phenotypes that are mechanistically linked to specific CAF functions. We believe that the development of a unified CAF nomenclature, the standardization of functional assays to assess the loss-of-function of CAF properties, and the establishment of rigorous definitions of CAF subpopulations and their mechanistic functions in cancer progression will be crucial to fully realize the promise of CAF-targeted therapies.
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Hu G, Cheng P, Pan J, Wang S, Ding Q, Jiang Z, Cheng L, Shao X, Huang L, Huang J. An IL6-Adenosine Positive Feedback Loop between CD73 + γδTregs and CAFs Promotes Tumor Progression in Human Breast Cancer. Cancer Immunol Res 2020; 8:1273-1286. [PMID: 32847938 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-19-0923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment induces immunosuppression via recruiting and expanding suppressive immune cells such as regulatory T cells (Treg) to promote cancer progression. In this study, we documented that tumor-infiltrating CD73+ γδTregs were the predominant Tregs in human breast cancer and exerted more potent immunosuppressive activity than CD4+ or CD8+ Tregs. We further demonstrated that cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF)-derived IL6, rather than TGFβ1, induced CD73+ γδTreg differentiation from paired normal breast tissues via the IL6/STAT3 pathway to produce more adenosine and become potent immunosuppressive T cells. CD73+ γδTregs could in turn promote IL6 secretion by CAFs through adenosine/A2BR/p38MAPK signaling, thereby forming an IL6-adenosine positive feedback loop. CD73+ γδTreg infiltration also impaired the tumoricidal functions of CD8+ T cells and significantly correlated with worse prognosis of patients. The data indicate that the IL6-adenosine loop between CD73+ γδTregs and CAFs is important to promote immunosuppression and tumor progression in human breast cancer, which may be critical for tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoming Hu
- Department of General Surgery (Breast and Thyroid Surgery), Shaoxing People's Hospital; Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Pu Cheng
- Cancer Institute (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention & Intervention, National Ministry of Education; Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Medical Sciences), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Department of Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jun Pan
- Cancer Institute (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention & Intervention, National Ministry of Education; Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Medical Sciences), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shimin Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Shaoxing People's Hospital; Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qiannan Ding
- Medical Research Center, Shaoxing People's Hospital; Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhou Jiang
- Cancer Institute (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention & Intervention, National Ministry of Education; Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Medical Sciences), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lu Cheng
- Department of Pathology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xuan Shao
- Cancer Institute (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention & Intervention, National Ministry of Education; Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Medical Sciences), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Department of Breast Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liming Huang
- Department of General Surgery (Breast and Thyroid Surgery), Shaoxing People's Hospital; Shaoxing Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jian Huang
- Cancer Institute (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention & Intervention, National Ministry of Education; Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Medical Sciences), Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China. .,Department of Breast Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Immune Therapy of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang, China
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Liao Z, Tan ZW, Zhu P, Tan NS. Cancer-associated fibroblasts in tumor microenvironment – Accomplices in tumor malignancy. Cell Immunol 2019; 343:103729. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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7
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Acquired resistance to cancer immunotherapy: Role of tumor-mediated immunosuppression. Semin Cancer Biol 2019; 65:13-27. [PMID: 31362073 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor cells are constantly evolving to reduce neoantigen generation and the mutational burden to escape the anti-tumor response. This will lower tumor reactivity to the adaptive immune response and give rise to tumor intrinsic factors, such as altered expression of immune regulatory molecules on tumor cells. Tumor-extrinsic factors, such as immunosuppressive cells, soluble suppressive molecules or inhibitory receptors expressed by immune cells will alter the composition and activity of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) (by increasing T regulatory cells:T effector cells ratio and inhibiting T effector cell function) and promote tumor growth and metastasis. Together, these factors limit the response rates and clinical outcomes to a particular cancer therapy. Within the TME, the cross-talks between immune and non-immune cells result in the generation of positive feedback loops, which augment immunosuppression and support tumor growth and survival (termed as tumor-mediated immunosuppression). Cancer immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and adoptive cell transfer (ACT), have shown therapeutic efficacy in hematologic cancers and different types of solid tumors. However, achieving durable response rates in some cancer patients remains a challenge as a result of acquired resistance and tumor immune evasion. This could be driven by the cellular and molecular suppressive network within the TME or due to the loss of tumor antigens. In this review, we describe the contribution of the immunosuppressive cellular and molecular tumor network to the development of acquired resistance against cancer immunotherapies. We also discuss potential combined therapeutic strategies which could help to overcome such resistance against cancer immunotherapies, and to enhance anti-tumor immune responses and improve clinical outcomes in patients.
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Houthuijzen JM, Jonkers J. Cancer-associated fibroblasts as key regulators of the breast cancer tumor microenvironment. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2019; 37:577-597. [PMID: 30465162 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-018-9768-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells exist in close proximity with non-malignant cells. Extensive and multilayered crosstalk between tumor cells and stromal cells tailors the tumor microenvironment (TME) to support survival, growth, and metastasis. Fibroblasts are one of the largest populations of non-malignant host cells that can be found within the TME of breast, pancreatic, and prostate tumors. Substantial scientific evidence has shown that these cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are not only associated with tumors by proximity but are also actively recruited to developing tumors where they can influence other cells of the TME as well as influencing tumor cell survival and metastasis. This review discusses the impact of CAFs on breast cancer biology and highlights their heterogeneity, origin and their role in tumor progression, ECM remodeling, therapy resistance, metastasis, and the challenges ahead of targeting CAFs to improve therapy response.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Houthuijzen
- Department of Molecular Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - J Jonkers
- Department of Molecular Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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The composition of T cell infiltrates varies in primary invasive breast cancer of different molecular subtypes as well as according to tumor size and nodal status. Virchows Arch 2019; 475:13-23. [PMID: 31016433 PMCID: PMC6611750 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-019-02568-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
T lymphocytes are the most numerous immune cells in tumor-associated infiltrates and include several subpopulations of either anticancer or pro-tumorigenic functions. However, the associations between levels of different T cell subsets and breast cancer molecular subtypes as well as other prognostic factors have not been fully established yet. We performed immunohistochemistry for CD8 (cytotoxic T cells (CTL)), FOXP3 (regulatory T cells (Tregs)), and GATA3 (Th2 cells) in 106 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded invasive breast cancer tissue samples and analyzed both the numbers and percentages of investigated cells in tumor-associated infiltrates. We observed that triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and HER2+ non-luminal breast tumors were associated with more numerous CTLs and Tregs and a higher Treg/Th2 cell ratio as compared with luminal A subtype. A higher Treg percentage was related to a decreased hormone receptor expression, an increase in the Ki67 level, a greater tumor size of luminal tumors, and the presence of lymph node metastases. Moreover, differences in the composition of T cell infiltrates were associated with HER2 status and histologic grade and type, and a distinct immune pattern was observed in tumors of different phenotypes regarding pT stage and nodal status. The results of our work show the diversity of T cell infiltrates in primary invasive breast cancers of different phenotypes and suggest that progression of luminal or non-luminal tumors is related to distinct tumor-associated T cell composition.
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10
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Cancer-associated fibroblasts in tumor microenvironment - Accomplices in tumor malignancy. Cell Immunol 2018; 343:103729. [PMID: 29397066 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There is much cellular heterogeneity in the tumor microenvironment. The tumor epithelia and stromal cells co-evolve, and this reciprocal relationship dictates almost every step of cancer development and progression. Despite this, many anticancer therapies are designed around druggable features of tumor epithelia, ignoring the supportive role of stromal cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the dominant cell type within the reactive stroma of many tumor types. Numerous previous studies have highlighted a pro-tumorigenic role for CAFs via secretion of various growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and the degradation of extracellular matrix. Recent works showed that CAFs secrete H2O2 to effect stromal-mediated field cancerization, transform primary epithelial cells, and aggravate cancer cell aggressiveness, in addition to inflammatory and mitogenic factors. Molecular characterization of CAFs also underscores the importance of Notch and specific nuclear receptor signaling in the activation of CAFs. This review consolidates recent findings of CAFs and highlights areas for future investigations.
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Jakubowska K, Kisielewski W, Kańczuga-Koda L, Koda M, Famulski W. Stromal and intraepithelial tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in colorectal carcinoma. Oncol Lett 2017; 14:6421-6432. [PMID: 29151905 PMCID: PMC5680638 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2017.7013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The local mechanisms of antitumor immune defense determine the development and organization of the tumor microenvironment, and the composition and relative proportions of the inflammatory cell population affect the quality and characteristics of the immune response. The aim of the present study was to conduct a quantitative morphological evaluation of two types of tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TILs) populations, including those located in the stroma and intraepithelial cancer structures, in the invasive front and the center of the tumor in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). The study included 160 patients with CRC who had undergone surgery. The tissue material was stained with hematoxylin and eosin, as used in routine histopathological diagnosis, and the two TIL populations were observed and counted with light microscopy. The relative extent of infiltration of stromal and intraepithelial TILs into the front and center of the primary tumors was similar. The extent of infiltration by stromal TILs was negatively correlated with the morphological features of tumor progression including the cancer infiltration of blood vessels (P=0.016), the invasion of lymph vessels (P=0.007), perineural invasion (P=0.036), lymph node involvement (P=0.047) and distant metastases (P=0.032). The infiltration by intraepithelial TILs was positively correlated with a desmoplastic reaction (P=0.002). Disease-free survival time was statistically shorter in patients without intraepithelial TILs in the center of the primary tumor mass (P=0.049; hazard ratio = 1.45). These results confirm that the infiltration of TILs into the invasive front and center of the tumor in patients with CRC serves an important role in the invasion and progression of the disease, and should be considered in routine histopathological examinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Jakubowska
- Department of Pathomorphology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, 15-027 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Wojciech Kisielewski
- Department of Medical Pathomorphology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Luiza Kańczuga-Koda
- Department of Pathomorphology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, 15-027 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Mariusz Koda
- Department of General Pathomorphology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Waldemar Famulski
- Department of Pathomorphology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, 15-027 Bialystok, Poland
- Department of Medical Pathomorphology, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland
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Lim H, Moon A. Inflammatory fibroblasts in cancer. Arch Pharm Res 2016; 39:1021-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-016-0787-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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A whole-cell tumor vaccine modified to express fibroblast activation protein induces antitumor immunity against both tumor cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14421. [PMID: 26394925 PMCID: PMC4585784 DOI: 10.1038/srep14421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are common components of the tumor-suppressive microenvironment, and are a major determinant of the poor outcome of therapeutic vaccination. In this study, we modified tumor cells to express the fibroblast activation protein (FAP), which is highly expressed by CAFs, to potentially improve whole-cell tumor vaccines by targeting both tumor cells and CAFs. Tumor cells were transfected with murine FAP plasmids bearing the cationic lipid DOTAP. Its antitumor effects were investigated in three established tumor models. Vaccination with tumor cells expressing FAP eliminated solid tumors and tumors resulting from hematogenous dissemination. This antitumor immune response was mediated by CD8+ T cells. Additionally, we found that CAFs were significantly reduced within the tumors. Furthermore, this vaccine enhanced the infiltration of CD8+ T lymphocytes, and suppressed the accumulation of immunosuppressive cells in the tumor microenvironment. Our results indicated that the FAP-modified whole-cell tumor vaccine induced strong antitumor immunity against both tumor cells and CAFs and reversed the immunosuppressive effects of tumors by decreasing the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells and enhancing the recruitment of effector T cells. This conclusion may have important implications for the clinical use of genetically modified tumor cells as cancer vaccines.
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Immune evasion in cancer: Mechanistic basis and therapeutic strategies. Semin Cancer Biol 2015; 35 Suppl:S185-S198. [PMID: 25818339 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 938] [Impact Index Per Article: 104.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immune evasion is a major stumbling block in designing effective anticancer therapeutic strategies. Although considerable progress has been made in understanding how cancers evade destructive immunity, measures to counteract tumor escape have not kept pace. There are a number of factors that contribute to tumor persistence despite having a normal host immune system. Immune editing is one of the key aspects why tumors evade surveillance causing the tumors to lie dormant in patients for years through "equilibrium" and "senescence" before re-emerging. In addition, tumors exploit several immunological processes such as targeting the regulatory T cell function or their secretions, antigen presentation, modifying the production of immune suppressive mediators, tolerance and immune deviation. Besides these, tumor heterogeneity and metastasis also play a critical role in tumor growth. A number of potential targets like promoting Th1, NK cell, γδ T cell responses, inhibiting Treg functionality, induction of IL-12, use of drugs including phytochemicals have been designed to counter tumor progression with much success. Some natural agents and phytochemicals merit further study. For example, use of certain key polysaccharide components from mushrooms and plants have shown to possess therapeutic impact on tumor-imposed genetic instability, anti-growth signaling, replicative immortality, dysregulated metabolism etc. In this review, we will discuss the advances made toward understanding the basis of cancer immune evasion and summarize the efficacy of various therapeutic measures and targets that have been developed or are being investigated to enhance tumor rejection.
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Jóźwicki W, Brożyna AA, Siekiera J, Slominski AT. Expression of RCAS1 correlates with urothelial bladder cancer malignancy. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:3783-803. [PMID: 25674852 PMCID: PMC4346926 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16023783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
RCAS1 is a protein that participates in regulation of the tumor microenvironment and its immune responses, all in order to evade the immune system. The aim of this study was to analyze RCAS1 expression in urothelial bladder cancer cells (and in fibroblasts and macrophages of the tumor stroma) and its relationship with the histological pattern of malignancy. Eighty-three postcystectomy patients were enrolled. We analyzed the histological maturity (grade), progress (pT stage), tissue invasion type (TIT), nonclassic differentiation number (NDN), and the ability to metastasize (pN). The expression of RCAS1 protein was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Indicators of histological malignancy were observed solely in association with the RCAS1 expression in cells in the border parts (BPs) of the tumor. Histological malignancy of the tumor, indicated by the pT and pN, and metastasis-free survival time, correlated significantly with RCAS1 expression in tumor neoplastic cells, whereas malignancy determined by grade, TIT, and NDN correlated with RCAS1 expression in fibroblasts and macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. These findings suggest that the increased RCAS1 expression depends on its cellular source and that RCAS1 expression itself is a component of various signaling pathways. The immune escape occurs within the tumor BPs, where the increase in the RCAS1 expression occurs within tumor cells and stromal cells in its microenvironment. We conclude that the histological pattern of tumor malignancy, indicated by grade, TIT, NDN, pT, and pN is a morphological indicator of immune escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Jóźwicki
- Department of Tumor Pathology and Pathomorphology, the Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Romanowska Street 2, Bydgoszcz 85-796, Poland.
- Department of Tumor Pathology and Pathomorphology, the Franciszek Łukaszczyk Oncology Centre, Romanowska Street 2, Bydgoszcz 85-796, Poland.
| | - Anna A Brożyna
- Department of Tumor Pathology and Pathomorphology, the Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Romanowska Street 2, Bydgoszcz 85-796, Poland.
- Department of Tumor Pathology and Pathomorphology, the Franciszek Łukaszczyk Oncology Centre, Romanowska Street 2, Bydgoszcz 85-796, Poland.
| | - Jerzy Siekiera
- Department of Urology, the Franciszek Łukaszczyk Oncology Centre, Romanowska Street 2, Bydgoszcz 85-796, Poland.
| | - Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee HSC, 930 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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De Veirman K, Rao L, De Bruyne E, Menu E, Van Valckenborgh E, Van Riet I, Frassanito MA, Di Marzo L, Vacca A, Vanderkerken K. Cancer associated fibroblasts and tumor growth: focus on multiple myeloma. Cancers (Basel) 2014; 6:1363-81. [PMID: 24978438 PMCID: PMC4190545 DOI: 10.3390/cancers6031363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) comprise a heterogeneous population that resides within the tumor microenvironment. They actively participate in tumor growth and metastasis by production of cytokines and chemokines, and the release of pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic factors, creating a more supportive microenvironment. The aim of the current review is to summarize the origin and characteristics of CAFs, and to describe the role of CAFs in tumor progression and metastasis. Furthermore, we focus on the presence of CAFs in hypoxic conditions in relation to multiple myeloma disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim De Veirman
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Luigia Rao
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Elke De Bruyne
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Eline Menu
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Els Van Valckenborgh
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Ivan Van Riet
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
| | - Maria Antonia Frassanito
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of General Pathology, University of Bari Medical School, Bari I-70124, Italy.
| | - Lucia Di Marzo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine, University of Bari Medical School, Bari I-70124, Italy.
| | - Angelo Vacca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Internal Medicine, University of Bari Medical School, Bari I-70124, Italy.
| | - Karin Vanderkerken
- Department of Hematology and Immunology, Myeloma Center Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels 1090, Belgium.
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Poggi A, Musso A, Dapino I, Zocchi MR. Mechanisms of tumor escape from immune system: role of mesenchymal stromal cells. Immunol Lett 2014; 159:55-72. [PMID: 24657523 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Revised: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumor microenvironment represents the site where the tumor tries to survive and escape from immune system-mediated recognition. Indeed, to proliferate tumor cells can divert the immune response inducing the generation of myeloid derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells which can limit the efficiency of effector antitumor lymphocytes in eliminating neoplastic cells. Many components of the tumor microenvironment can serve as a double sword for the tumor and the host. Several types of fibroblast-like cells, which herein we define mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC), secrete extracellular matrix components and surrounding the tumor mass can limit the expansion of the tumor. On the other hand, MSC can interfere with the immune recognition of tumor cells producing immunoregulatory cytokines as transforming growth factor (TGF)ß, releasing soluble ligands of the activating receptors expressed on cytolytic effector cells as decoy molecules, affecting the correct interaction among lymphocytes and tumor cells. MSC can also serve as target for the same anti-tumor effector lymphocytes or simply impede the interaction between these lymphocytes and neoplastic cells. Thus, several evidences point out the role of MSC, both in epithelial solid tumors and hematological malignancies, in regulating tumor cell growth and immune response. Herein, we review these evidences and suggest that MSC can be a suitable target for a more efficient anti-tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Poggi
- Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis Unit, IRCCS AOU San Martino IST, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Musso
- Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis Unit, IRCCS AOU San Martino IST, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Irene Dapino
- Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis Unit, IRCCS AOU San Martino IST, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Maria Raffaella Zocchi
- Division of Immunology, Transplants and Infectious Diseases, Istituto Scientifico San Raffaele Milan, 20132 Milan, Italy
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Aragón F, Carino S, Perdigón G, de Moreno de LeBlanc A. The administration of milk fermented by the probiotic Lactobacillus casei CRL 431 exerts an immunomodulatory effect against a breast tumour in a mouse model. Immunobiology 2014; 219:457-64. [PMID: 24646876 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Antitumour activity is one of the health-promoting effects attributed to probiotics specially analysed from preclinical models, mostly murine. Here, the effect of milk fermented by the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus casei CRL 431, on a murine breast cancer model was analysed. Mice were fed with milk fermented by Lactobacillus casei or unfermented milk before and after tumour injection. Rate of tumour development, cytokines in serum, IgA, CD4, CD8, F4/80 and cytokines positive cells in mammary glands were determined. Microvasculature in the tumour tissues was monitored. The effect of fermented milk administration after tumour injection was also evaluated. It was observed that probiotic administration delayed or blocked tumour development. This effect was associated to modulation of the immune response triggered by the tumour. The area occupied by blood vessels decreased in the tumours from mice given fermented milk which agrees with their small tumours, and fewer side effects. Finally, it was observed that probiotic administration after tumour detection was also beneficial to delay the tumour growth. In conclusion, we showed in this study the potential of milk fermented by the probiotic Lactobacillus casei CRL431 to stimulate the immune response against this breast tumour, avoiding or delaying its growth when it was preventively administrated and also when the administration started after tumour cells injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Aragón
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA-CONICET), Chacabuco 145, San Miguel de Tucumán, T4000ILC Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Silvia Carino
- Laboratorio de Anatomía patológica, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Gabriela Perdigón
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA-CONICET), Chacabuco 145, San Miguel de Tucumán, T4000ILC Tucumán, Argentina; Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Bioquimíca, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA-CONICET), Chacabuco 145, San Miguel de Tucumán, T4000ILC Tucumán, Argentina.
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