Lyophilization monophase solution technique for preparation of amorphous flutamide dispersions

Modification of the Physicochemical Properties of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients via Lyophilization

Bioavailability is an important biopharmaceutical characteristic of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) that is often correlated with their solubility in water. One of the methods of increasing solubility is freeze drying (lyophilization). The article provides a systematic review of studies published from 2012 to 2022 aimed at optimizing the properties of active pharmaceutical ingredients by freeze drying. This review was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA). In general, 141 modifications of 36 APIs attributed to 12 pharmacological groups were reported in selected publications. To characterize the products of phase modification after lyophilization, a complex of analytical methods was used, including microscopic, thermal, X-ray, and spectral approaches. Solubility and pharmacokinetic parameters were assessed. There is a tendency to increase solubility due to the amorphization of APIs during lyophilization. Thus, the alcohol lyophilizate of dihydroquercetin is "soluble" in water compared to the initial substance belonging to the category "very poorly soluble". Based on the analysis of the literature, it can be argued that lyophilization is a promising method for optimizing the properties of APIs.

Sequential Delivery of Novel Triple Drug Combination via Crosslinked Alginate/Lactoferrin Nanohybrids for Enhanced Breast Cancer Treatment

While breast cancer remains a global health concern, the elaboration of rationally designed drug combinations coupled with advanced biocompatible delivery systems offers new promising treatment venues. Herein, we repurposed rosuvastatin (RST) based on its selective tumor apoptotic effect and combined it with the antimetabolite pemetrexed (PMT) and the tumor-sensitizing polyphenol honokiol (HK). This synergistic three-drug combination was incorporated into protein polysaccharide nanohybrids fabricated by utilizing sodium alginate (ALG) and lactoferrin (LF), inspired by the stealth property of the former and the cancer cell targeting capability of the latter. ALG was conjugated to PMT and then coupled with LF which was conjugated to RST, forming core shell nanohybrids into which HK was physically loaded, followed by cross linking using genipin. The crosslinked HK-loaded PMT-ALG/LF-RST nanohybrids exhibited a fair drug loading of 7.86, 5.24 and 6.11% for RST, PMT and HK, respectively. It demonstrated an eight-fold decrease in the IC50 compared to the free drug combination, in addition to showing an enhanced cellular uptake by MCF-7 cells. The in vivo antitumor efficacy in a breast cancer-bearing mouse model confirmed the superiority of the triple cocktail-loaded nanohybrids. Conclusively, our rationally designed triple drug-loaded protein/polysaccharide nanohybrids offer a promising, biocompatible approach for an effective breast tumor suppression.

Potential of solid dispersions to enhance solubility, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy of poorly water-soluble drugs: newer formulation techniques, current marketed scenario and patents

In the last few decades, solid dispersion (SD) technology had been studied as an approach to produce an amorphous carrier to enhance the solubility, dissolution rate, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. The use of suitable carrier and methodology in the preparation of SDs play a significant role in the biological behavior of the SDs. SDs have been prepared using a variety of pharmaceutically acceptable polymers utilizing various novel technologies. In the recent years, much attention has been paid toward the use of novel carriers and methodologies in exploring novel types of SDs to enhance therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability. The use of novel carriers and methodologies would be very beneficial for formulation scientists to develop some SDs-based formulations for their commercial use and clinical applications. In the present review, current literature of novel methodologies for SD preparation to enhance the dissolution rate, solubility, therapeutic efficacy, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs has been summarized and analyzed. Further, the current status of SDs, patent status, and future prospects have also been discussed.

Amorphous solid dispersions: An update for preparation, characterization, mechanism on bioavailability, stability, regulatory considerations and marketed products

Amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) are being employed frequently to improve bioavailability of poorly soluble molecules by enhancing the rate and extant of dissolution in drug product development process. These systems comprise of an amorphous active pharmaceutical ingredient stabilized by a polymer matrix to provide enhanced stability. This review discussed the methodologies of preparation and characterization of ASDs with an emphasis on understanding and predicting stability. Rational selection of polymers, preparation techniques with its advantages and disadvantages and characterization of polymeric amorphous solid dispersions have discussed. Stability aspects have been described as per ICH guidelines which intend to depend on selection of polymers and preparation methods of ASD. The mechanism involved on improvement of bioavailability also considered. Regulatory importance of ASD and current evolving details of QBD approach were reviewed. Amorphous products and particularly ASDs are currently most emerging area in the pharmaceutical field. This strategic approach presents huge impact and advantageous features concerning the overall improvement of drug product performance in clinical settings which ultimately lead to drug product approval by leading regulatory agencies into the market.

Overview of the Manufacturing Methods of Solid Dispersion Technology for Improving the Solubility of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs and Application to Anticancer Drugs

Approximately 40% of new chemical entities (NCEs), including anticancer drugs, have been reported as poorly water-soluble compounds. Anticancer drugs are classified into biologic drugs (monoclonal antibodies) and small molecule drugs (nonbiologic anticancer drugs) based on effectiveness and safety profile. Biologic drugs are administered by intravenous (IV) injection due to their large molecular weight, while small molecule drugs are preferentially administered by gastrointestinal route. Even though IV injection is the fastest route of administration and ensures complete bioavailability, this route of administration causes patient inconvenience to visit a hospital for anticancer treatments. In addition, IV administration can cause several side effects such as severe hypersensitivity, myelosuppression, neutropenia, and neurotoxicity. Oral administration is the preferred route for drug delivery due to several advantages such as low cost, pain avoidance, and safety. The main problem of NCEs is a limited aqueous solubility, resulting in poor absorption and low bioavailability. Therefore, improving oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a great challenge in the development of pharmaceutical dosage forms. Several methods such as solid dispersion, complexation, lipid-based systems, micronization, nanonization, and co-crystals were developed to improve the solubility of hydrophobic drugs. Recently, solid dispersion is one of the most widely used and successful techniques in formulation development. This review mainly discusses classification, methods for preparation of solid dispersions, and use of solid dispersion for improving solubility of poorly soluble anticancer drugs.

Combining hydrophilic chemotherapy and hydrophobic phytotherapy via tumor-targeted albumin-QDs nano-hybrids: covalent coupling and phospholipid complexation approaches

BACKGROUND

The rationale of this study is to combine the merits of both albumin nanoparticles and quantum dots (QDs) in improved drug tumor accumulation and strong fluorescence imaging capability into one carrier. However, premature drug release from protein nanoparticles and high toxicity of QDs due to heavy metal leakage are among challenging hurdles. Following this platform, we developed cancer nano-theranostics by coupling biocompatible albumin backbone to CdTe QDs and mannose moieties to enhance tumor targeting and reduce QDs toxicity. The chemotherapeutic water soluble drug pemetrexed (PMT) was conjugated via tumor-cleavable bond to the albumin backbone for tumor site-specific release. In combination, the herbal hydrophobic drug resveratrol (RSV) was preformulated as phospholipid complex which enabled its physical encapsulation into albumin nanoparticles.

RESULTS

Albumin-QDs theranostics showed enhanced cytotoxicity and internalization into breast cancer cells that could be traced by virtue of their high fluorescence quantum yield and excellent imaging capacity. In vivo, the nanocarriers demonstrated superior anti-tumor effects including reduced tumor volume, increased apoptosis, and inhibited angiogenesis in addition to non-immunogenic response. Moreover, in vivo bioimaging test demonstrated excellent tumor-specific accumulation of targeted nanocarriers via QDs-mediated fluorescence.

CONCLUSION

Mannose-grafted strategy and QD-fluorescence capability were beneficial to deliver albumin nanocarriers to tumor tissues and then to release the anticancer drugs for killing cancer cells as well as enabling tumor imaging facility. Overall, we believe albumin-QDs nanoplatform could be a potential nano-theranostic for bioimaging and targeted breast cancer therapy.

Drug-Lipid-Surfactant Miscibility for the Development of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

This research aimed to study the correlation between miscibility of flutamide (FLT), lipids and surfactant on the particle size of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). Physical mixtures (PMs) of lipids-glyceryl monooleate (GMO), Precirol® (glyceryl palmitostearate, PRE), glyceryl monostearate (GMS), and Compritol® (glyceryl dibehenate, COM) were prepared with surfactant-Gelucire® (stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides, GEL) 50/13 and 44/14. PMs were prepared in 5:2 w/w ratio (lipid:surfactant) and 2:1 w/w (Flutamide (FLT):lipids/GEL 50/13) by co-melting. Miscibility of PMs was investigated using modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC). SLNs with and without drug were prepared using GEL 50/13 by the ultra-sonication method and particle size analysis was conducted. PMs of GMO, GMS, and PRE with both surfactants showed a decrease in the melting temperature, no change in melting and crystallization peak was observed with COM-GELs, indicating immiscibility. Similarly, MDSC data suggests good miscibility of FLT in GMO, GMS, and GEL 50/13 but not in PRE and COM. The particle size of drug-loaded SLNs prepared from GMO and GMS with GEL 50/13 was found to be 70.2 ± 5.4 and 92.6 ± 8.5 compared to > 200-nm particles obtained from PRE and COM. On lyophilization, an increase in particles size was observed with COM only. The particle size of SLNs with PRE and COM was prominently increased during stability studies indicating SLNs prepared with GMO and GMS are more stable due to miscibility and ability to reduce the crystallinity of FLT. The results established a good correlation between drug, lipids, and surfactants miscibility to the obtained particle size of SLNs before and after lyophilization. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids: Hybridization techniques and drug delivery applications

Complex nanosystems fabricated by hybridization of different types of materials such as lipids, proteins, or polysaccharides are usually superior to simple ones in terms of features and applications. Proteins and polysaccharides hold great potential for development of nanocarriers for drug delivery purposes based on their unique biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of functionalization, improved biodistribution and minimal toxicity profiles. Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids have gained a lot of attention in the past few years particularly for drug delivery applications. In this review, different hybridization techniques utilized in the fabrication of such nanohybrids including electrostatic complexation, Maillard conjugation, chemical coupling and electrospinning were thoroughly reviewed. Moreover, various formulation factors affecting the characteristics of the formed nanohybrids were discussed. We also reviewed in depth the outcomes of such hybridization ranging from stability enhancement, to toxicity reduction, improved biocompatibility, and drug release modulation. We also gave an insight on their limitations and what hinders their clinical translation and market introduction.

Lactoferrin-tagged quantum dots-based theranostic nanocapsules for combined COX-2 inhibitor/herbal therapy of breast cancer

Aim: Herein, tumor-targeted quantum dots (QDs)-based theranostic nanocapsules (NCs) coloaded with celecoxib and honokiol were developed. Materials & methodology: The anionic CD44-targeting chondroitin sulfate and cationic low density lipoprotein (LDL)-targeting lactoferrin (LF) were sequentially assembled onto the surface of the positively charged oily core. As an imaging probe, highly fluorescent mercaptopropionic acid-capped cadmium telluride QDs were coupled to LF. Results: In vitro, fluorescence of QDs was quenched (OFF state) due to combined electron/energy transfer-mediated processes involving LF. After intracellular uptake of NCs, fluorescence was restored (ON state), thus enabled tracing their internalization. The NCs demonstrated enhanced cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells as well as superior in vivo antitumor efficacy. Conclusion: We propose these multifunctional nanotheranostics for imaging and targeted therapy of breast cancer.

Layer-by-layer gelatin/chondroitin quantum dots-based nanotheranostics: combined rapamycin/celecoxib delivery and cancer imaging

Aim: Nanotheranostics consisting of highly-fluorescent quantum dots coupled with gelatin/chondroitin layer-by-layer assembled nanocapsules were developed. Materials & methods: The hydrophobic drugs celecoxib (CXB) and rapamycin (RAP) were co-loaded into the oily core of nanocapsules (NCs) to enable synergistic growth inhibition of breast cancer cells. To overcome the nonspecific binding of actively targeted CS-NCs with normal cells, a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2)-degradable cationic gelatin layer was electrostatically deposited onto the surface of the negatively-charged CS-NCs. Results: The prepared nanocarriers displayed strong fluorescence which enabled tracing their internalization into cancer cells. An enhanced cytotoxicity of the NCs against breast cancer cells was demonstrated. In vivo, the nanoplatforms displayed superior antitumor efficacy as well as nonimmunogenic response. Conclusion: Therefore, these multifunctional nanoplatforms could be used as potential cancer theranostics.

Flutamide-Loaded Zein Nanocapsule Hydrogel, a Promising Dermal Delivery System for Pilosebaceous Unit Disorders

Zein is a naturally occurring corn protein having similarity to skin keratin. Owing to its hydrophobicity and biodegradability, zein nanocarriers are promising drug delivery vehicles for hydrophobic dermatological drugs. In this study, zein-based nanocapsules (ZNCs) were exploited for the first time as dermal delivery carriers for flutamide (FLT), an antiandrogen used for the management of pilosebasceous unit disorders. FLT-loaded ZNC of appropriate particle size and negative surface charge were prepared by nanoprecipitation method. The dermal permeation and skin retention of FLT from ZNCs were studied in comparison to corresponding nanoemulsion (NE) and hydroalcoholic drug solution (HA). ZNCs showed a significantly lower permeation flux compared to NE and HA while increasing the skin retention of FLT. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) demonstrated the follicular localization of the fluorescently labeled NCs. The incorporation of NCs in chitosan gel or Carbomer® 934 gel was studied. Carbomer® gel increased the skin retention of FLT compared to chitosan gel. Accordingly, Carbomer® hydrogel embedding FLT-loaded ZNCs is a promising inexpensive, biocompatible dermal delivery nanocarrier for localized therapy of PSU disorders suitable for application on oily skin.

Folate conjugated vs PEGylated phytosomal casein nanocarriers for codelivery of fungal- and herbal-derived anticancer drugs

Aim: Monascin and ankaflavin, the major fractions of the fungal-derived monascus yellow pigments, were incorporated with the herbal drug, resveratrol (RSV) within the core of folate-conjugated casein micelles (FA–CAS MCs, F1) for active targeting. PEGylated RSV-phospholipid complex bilayer enveloping casein-loaded micelles (PEGPC–CAS MCs) were also developed as passive-targeted nanosystem. Results: FA– and PEGPC–CAS MCs demonstrated a proper size with monomodal distribution, sustained drug release profiles and good hemocompatibility. The coloaded MCs showed superior cytotoxicity to MCF-7 breast cancer cells compared with free drugs. Both nanosystems exerted excellent in vivo antitumor efficacy in breast cancer bearing mice with PEGylated MCs showing comparable tumor regression to folate-conjugated MCs. Conclusion: Evergreen nanoplatforms coloaded with monascus yellow pigments and RSV were effective for breast cancer treatment.

Hyaluronate/lactoferrin layer-by-layer-coated lipid nanocarriers for targeted co-delivery of rapamycin and berberine to lung carcinoma

The self-tumor targeting polymers, lactoferrin (LF) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were utilized to develop layer-by-layer (LbL) lipid nanoparticles (NPs) for dual delivery of berberine (BER) and rapamycin (RAP) to lung cancer. To control its release from the NPs, BER was hydrophobically ion paired with SLS prior to incorporation into NPs. Spherical HA/LF-LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs 250.5 nm in diameter, with a surface charge of -18.5 mV were successfully elaborated. The NPs exhibited sequential release pattern with faster release of BER followed by controlled release of RAP which enables sensitization of lung tumor cells to the anti-cancer action of RAP. LbL coating of the NPs was found to enhance the drug cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells as augmented by remarkable increase in their cellular internalization through CD44 receptors overexpressed by tumor cells. In vivo studies in lung cancer bearing mice have revealed the superior therapeutic activity of LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs over the free drugs as demonstrated by 88.09% reduction in the average number of microscopic lung foci and 3.1-fold reduction of the angiogenic factor VEGF level compared to positive control. Overall, the developed HA/LF-LbL-coated lipid NPs could be potential carriers for targeted co-delivery of BER and RAP to lung cancer cells.

Phytosomal bilayer-enveloped casein micelles for codelivery of monascus yellow pigments and resveratrol to breast cancer

Aim: Multireservoir nanocarriers were fabricated for delivering antineoplastic drug cocktail from herbal and fungal origin. Monascus yellow pigments (MYPs), monascin and ankaflavin, were isolated from red-mold rice, and incorporated within casein micelles (CAS MCs) along with the herbal drug, resveratrol (RSV). Both drugs (MYPs and RSV) were simultaneously incorporated into the hydrophobic core of CAS MCs. Alternatively, MYPs-loaded CAS MCs were enveloped within RSV-phytosomal bilayer elaborating multireservoir nanocarriers. Results: Cytotoxicity studies confirmed the superiority of multireservoir nanocarriers against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The in vivo antitumor efficacy was revealed by reduction of the tumor volume and growth biomarkers. Conclusion: Multireservoir CAS nanocarriers for codelivery of both MYPs and RSV may be promising alternative to traditional breast cancer therapy.

Shell-crosslinked zein nanocapsules for oral codelivery of exemestane and resveratrol in breast cancer therapy

Aim: Oral administration of exemestane (EXM) and resveratrol (RES) for breast cancer therapy has been limited by their poor solubility and low permeability. Methods: In this study, these issues were tackled using zein nanocapsules (ZNCs) for oral EXM/RES codelivery combining drug solubilization within oily core and resistance to digestion via hydrophobic protein shell. Furthermore, higher oral stability and sustained release could be enabled by glutaraldehyde crosslinking of zein shell. Results & conclusion: EXM/RES-ZNCs showed enhanced cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and 4T1 breast cancer cells compared with free drug combination with higher selectivity to cancer cells rather than normal fibroblasts. In vivo, crosslinked EXM/RES-ZNCs markedly reduced the percentage increase of Ehrlich ascites mammary tumor volume in mice by 2.4-fold compared with free drug combination.

Protein-lipid nanohybrids as emerging platforms for drug and gene delivery: Challenges and outcomes

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have been long used to deliver a vast range of drugs and bioactives owing to their ability to demonstrate novel physical, chemical, and/or biological properties. An exponential growth has spurred in research and development of these nanocarriers which led to the evolution of a great number of diverse nanosystems including liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), metallic NPs, and carbon nanotubes. Among them, lipid-based nanocarriers have made the largest progress whether commercially or under development. Despite this progress, these lipid-based nanocarriers suffer from several limitations that led to the development of many protein-coated lipid nanocarriers. To less extent, protein-based nanocarriers suffer from limitations that led to the fabrication of some lipid bilayer enveloping protein nanocarriers. This review discusses in-depth some limitations associated with the lipid-based or protein-based nanocarriers and the fruitful outcomes brought by protein-lipid hybridization. Also discussed are the various hybridization techniques utilized to formulate these protein-lipid nanohybrids and the mechanisms involved in the drug loading process.

Effect of polymers and media type on extending the dissolution of amorphous pioglitazone and inhibiting the recrystallization from a supersaturated state

Amorphous forms of crystalline drug are widely utilized for bioavailability enhancement of low solubility drugs in the pharmaceutical industry. Polymers have been found to be effective crystallization inhibitors for amorphous forms in solid states during storage or in liquid states during dissolution process. The dissolution and crystallization behaviors of these amorphous forms in the presence or absence of polymers are still far from adequately understood especially in different dissolution environments. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of polymers and media type on extending the dissolution of amorphous pioglitazone and inhibiting the recrystallization from a supersaturated state. Polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVPK30), polyvinylpyrrolidone K90 (PVPK90), polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG6000), polyethylene-polypropylene glycol 188 (F-68), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and beta-cyclodextrin (β-CD) were employed to understand these behaviors changes because these polymers were used widely. Three solutions including neutral water and phosphate buffer solutions (PBS, pH6.8 and pH7.4) were adopted as dissolution media to determine the behaviors changes comprehensively. In the presence of polymers, dissolution and solubility were extended to different degrees in three media. Polymers can delay the crystallization routes dependently of the medium type. Buffer salts in media reduced the dissolution and accelerated the crystallization process. Crystallization inhibition of these polymers was strongly dependent on the type and pH of media. HPMC displayed the strongest crystallization inhibition effects, resulting in the greatest degree of maintaining a supersaturated state that can sustain most effectively for biologically relevant timeframes.

Powder form and stability of Pluronic mixed micelle dispersions for drug delivery applications

The aim of this work was to optimize a formulation of the Pluronic® F127/L121 mixed micelle system and evaluate it in terms of stability upon dilution in biologically relevant media and to explore the possibility of preparing F127/L121 micelles in a powder form that can be simply reconstituted to an initial freshly made mixed micelle formulation. The mixed F127/L121 micelles were prepared at a relatively high concentration of Pluronics (1% w/w for both Pluronics) using two different methods (direct dissolution and film rehydration) with an external input of energy. The optimal preparation of the mixed F127/L121 micelles (hydrodynamic diameter (dh) = 75 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) = 0.287) was achieved using the film rehydration method followed by ultrasonication. Stability studies of the F127/L121 micelle system were performed at 25 °C and 37 °C and upon dilution in different biologically relevant media. The F127/L121 micelles were stable in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) upon 100-fold dilution for at least 10 d and in PBS containing bovine serum albumin upon 10 and 50-fold dilution for at least 48 and 12 h, respectively. A dry powdered form of the mixed micelles was prepared by freeze-drying after slow or fast freezing process. The influence of the type and amount of cryoprotectant on the prevention of F127/L121 micelles aggregation during the freeze-drying and reconstitution processes were evaluated. The use of trehalose (5%, w/w) and sucrose (2.5%, w/w) with slow and fast freezing process, respectively, resulted in a reconstituted product with mostly similar dh and PDI values of the fresh micelle formulation.