Prolonged release of pentazocine from multiple O/W/O emulsions

One-Step Generation of O/W/O Double Pickering Emulsions Utilizing Biocompatible Gliadin/Ethyl Cellulose Complex Particles as the Exclusive Stabilizer

Double emulsions hold great potential for various applications due to their compartmentalized internal structures. However, achieving their long-term physical stability remains a challenging task. Here, we present a simple one-step method for producing stable oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) double emulsions using biocompatible gliadin/ethyl cellulose complex particles as the sole stabilizer. The resulting O/W/O systems serve as effective platforms for encapsulating enzymes and as templates for synthesizing porous microspheres. We investigated the impact of particle concentration and water fraction on the properties of Pickering O/W/O emulsions. Our results demonstrate that the number and volume of inner oil droplets increased proportionally with both the water fraction and particle concentration after a 60-day storage period. Moreover, the catalytic reaction rate of the encapsulated lipase within the double emulsion exhibited a significant acceleration, achieving a substrate conversion of 80.9% within 15 min. Remarkably, the encapsulated enzyme showed excellent recyclability, enabling up to 10 cycles of reuse. Additionally, by utilizing the O/W/O systems as templates, we successfully obtained porous microspheres whose size can be controlled by the outer water droplet. These findings have significant implications for the future design of Pickering complex emulsion-based systems, opening avenues for extensive applications in pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, material synthesis, and (bio)catalysis.

Recent progress in oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) double emulsions

Oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) double emulsions are recognized as an advanced design route for oil structuring that shows promising applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food fields. This review summarizes the main research advances of O/W/O double emulsions over the past two decades. It mainly focuses on understanding the preparation strategies, stabilization mechanism, and potential applications of O/W/O double emulsions. Several emulsification strategies are discussed, including traditional two-step emulsification method, phase-inversion approach, membrane emulsification, and microfluidic emulsification. Further, the role of interfacial stabilizers and viscosity in the stability of O/W/O double emulsions will be discussed with a focus on synthetic emulsifiers, natural biopolymer sand solid particles for achieving this purpose. Additionally, analytical methods for evaluating the stability of O/W/O double emulsions, such as advanced microscopy, rheology, and labeling assay are reviewed taking into account potential limitations of these characterization techniques. Moreover, possible innovative food applications are highlighted, such as simulating fat substitutes to decrease the trans- or saturated fatty acid content and developing novel delivery and encapsulation systems. This review paves a solid way for the exploration of O/W/O double emulsions toward large-scale implementation within the food industry.

Synthesis of Oil-Laden Poly(ethylene glycol) Diacrylate Hydrogel Nanocapsules from Double Nanoemulsions

Multiple emulsions have received great interest due to their ability to be used as templates for the production of multicompartment particles for a variety of applications. However, scaling these complex droplets to nanoscale dimensions has been a challenge due to limitations on their fabrication methods. Here, we report the development of oil-in-water-in-oil (O₁/W/O₂) double nanoemulsions via a two-step high-energy method and their use as templates for complex nanogels comprised of inner oil droplets encapsulated within a hydrogel matrix. Using a combination of characterization methods, we determine how the properties of the nanogels are controlled by the size, stability, internal morphology, and chemical composition of the nanoemulsion templates from which they are formed. This allows for identification of compositional and emulsification parameters that can be used to optimize the size and oil encapsulation efficiency of the nanogels. Our templating method produces oil-laden nanogels with high oil encapsulation efficiencies and average diameters of 200-300 nm. In addition, we demonstrate the versatility of the system by varying the types of inner oil, the hydrogel chemistry, the amount of inner oil, and the hydrogel network cross-link density. These nontoxic oil-laden nanogels have potential applications in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations.

Formation of biodegradable microcapsules utilizing 3D, selectively surface-modified PDMS microfluidic devices

We have successfully demonstrated the formation of biodegradable microcapsules utilizing PDMS double-emulsification devices. Specially designed 3D PDMS microchannels with surfaces selectively modified by a self-aligned photografting process are employed to generate monodisperse water-in-organic-solvent-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions in a controlled manner. Mainly by varying the outer and inner fluid flow-rates, the dimensions of resulting double emulsions can be adjusted as desired. Meanwhile, biodegradable materials are dissolved in the middle organic solvent (in this work ethyl acetate is used), and solidified into microcapsules once the solvent is extracted. In the prototype demonstration, microcapsules made up of poly(L-lactic acid), trilaurin, and phosphocholine were successfully fabricated. In addition, it was also demonstrated that gamma-Fe(2)O(3) nanoparticles can be simultaneously embedded into the microcapsules, which consequently become responsive to electromagnetic stimulation. As such, the presented PDMS microfluidic devices could potentially serve as versatile encapsulation apparatus, and the fabricated biodegradable microcapsules could function as controlled delivery systems, which are desired for a variety of biological and pharmaceutical applications.

Preparation and evaluation of w/o/w type emulsions containing vancomycin

The objective of this contribution is to summarize the preparation and application of water-in-oil-in-water type multiple emulsions (w/o/w emulsions) entrapping vancomycin (VCM). Formulations of the emulsions (the composition of an oily phase or the type and concentrations of surfactants) and emulsification methods (a stirring method and a membrane method) or conditions (rotation rates, pore sizes of membrane or operation pressures) were evaluated in order to prepare stable w/o/w emulsions. The pharmaceutical properties of the w/o/w emulsions - particle sizes, viscosity, phase separation and drug entrapment efficiency were measured and evaluated. We prepared stable w/o/w emulsions with a particle size of about 3 micrometer and an entrapment efficiency of VCM of about 70%. When this emulsion was administered intravenously to rats, plasma concentrations of VCM were prolonged compared to the VCM solution alone. The results of this study show the potential of the w/o/w emulsions for several clinical applications as one of the drug delivery systems.

Design, development, and biopharmaceutical properties of buccoadhesive compacts of pentazocine

Buccoadhesive compacts (BCs) of pentazocine (PZ) were prepared by the direct compression method using polymers like carbopol 974P (CP 974P) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC K4M) in ratios of 1:0 (batch B1), 1:1 (B2), 1:2 (B3), 1:4 (B4), and 0:1 (B5). The compacts were evaluated for thickness uniformity, weight variation, drug content uniformity, and swelling index. Swelling was increased with an increase in HPMC K4M content in the compacts. An in vitro assembly was developed to measure and compare the bioadhesive strength of compacts. The maximum bioadhesive strength was observed in compacts formulated with a combination of CP 974P and HPMC K4M. The compacts were evaluated in vitro for 24 hr in pH 6.6 phosphate buffer using a standardized dissolution apparatus. The data were evaluated by a simple power equation (Mt/M infinity = Ktn); it was observed that all the compacts followed non-Fickian release kinetics. Some of the buccoadhesive compacts were evaluated in vivo in rabbits. The compacts gave controlled blood level profiles with a twofold to threefold increase in area-under-the-curve (AUC) values in comparison to oral administration of aqueous drug solution.

A stable multiple emulsion system bearing isoniazid: preparation and characterization

Multiple emulsions with an oily liquid membrane (w/o/w) bearing isoniazid were prepared by an improved 2 x 2 step emulsification technique. Both of the interfaces of the liquid membrane were stabilized by using microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) in external as well as internal aqueous phases. The emulsions were characterized for droplet size, percent formation of multiple emulsion, release rate effect of Tween-80 in external phase, phase volume ratio on release, and stability during aging at various storage conditions. The droplet size was small and yield of multiple emulsion was fairly good. The increasing concentration of MCC in either internal or external phase increased the droplet size. The system holds promise in tuberculosis therapy.

Preparation and characterization of multiple emulsion based systems for controlled diclofenac sodium release

Multiple w/o/w type emulsions were prepared and stabilized through interfacial complex films formation as a result of interaction of macromolecules like gelatin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) (each present in internal aqueous phase separately) with sorbitan monostearate (Span 60) present in the middle oil phase. The stability of prepared emulsions was assessed using microscopic analysis which showed no significant changes in the average size of globule and number of droplets counted per cubic mm on storage. Viscosity and zeta potential studies revealed appreciable stability of the multiple emulsions. The multiple emulsion containing macromolecules in their internal phase demonstrated better entrapment efficiency. Intramuscular injection of drug in a w/o/w emulsion formulation provided a protracted drug plasma profile for diclofenac sodium.

Multiple emulsion-based systems carrying insulin: development and characterization

An insulin delivery system based on liquid surfactant membranes has been developed. The formulation was based on a w/o/w emulsion where an organic membrane separated two aqueous phases and the internal aqueous phase contained insulin. Sesame and cotton seed oils were used as organic membranes. In order to facilitate the transportation of glucose across the organic membrane various additives such as calcium stearate, lecithin, cholesterol, hexamine, stearic acid and glyceryl tristearate were used. The additives were found to be successful carriers for the transportation of glucose to the internal aqueous phase. Similarly, viscosity enhancers, e.g. cetostearyl alcohol, in the organic phase enhanced the immobilization of insulin. Various parameters affecting the stability of the emulsions were established. The developed system was characterized for insulin activity and insulin efflux profile.