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Ji C, Sigurdsson EM. Current Status of Clinical Trials on Tau Immunotherapies. Drugs 2021; 81:1135-1152. [PMID: 34101156 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-021-01546-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tau immunotherapies have advanced from proof-of-concept studies to over a dozen clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Mechanistic studies in animal and culture models have provided valuable insight into how these therapies may work but multiple pathways are likely involved. Different groups have emphasized the importance of intracellular vs extracellular antibody-mediated clearance of the tau protein and there is no consensus on which pool of tau should ideally be targeted. Likewise, various normal and disease-selective epitopes are being targeted, and the antibody isotypes either favor phagocytosis of the tau-antibody complex or are neutral in that aspect. Most of the clinical trials are in early stages, thus their efficacy is not yet known, but all have been without any major adverse effects and some have reported target engagement. A few have been discontinued. One in phase I, presumably because of a poor pharmacokinetic profile, and three in phase II for a lack of efficacy although this trial stage is not well powered for efficacy measures. In these phase II studies, trials with two antibodies in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy or other primary tauopathies were halted but are continuing in patients with AD, and one antibody trial was stopped in early-stage AD but is continuing in moderate AD. These three antibodies have been reported to only work extracellularly and tau is not increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of primary tauopathies, which may explain the failures of two of them. In the discontinued AD trial, there are some concerns about how much of extracellular tau contains the N-terminal epitope that is being targeted. In addition, extracellular tau is only a small part of total tau, compared to intracellular tau. Targeting only the former may not be sufficient for functional benefits. Given these outcomes, decision makers within the pharmaceutical companies who green light these trials should attempt to target tau not only extracellularly but also intracellularly to increase their chances of success. Hopefully, some of the ongoing trials will provide some functional benefits to the large number of patients with tauopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changyi Ji
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, 11th floor, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Einar M Sigurdsson
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, 11th floor, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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Autopsy-diagnosed neurodegenerative dementia cases support the use of cerebrospinal fluid protein biomarkers in the diagnostic work-up. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10837. [PMID: 34035398 PMCID: PMC8149718 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90366-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Various proteins play a decisive role in the pathology of different neurodegenerative diseases. Nonetheless, most of these proteins can only be detected during a neuropathological assessment, although some non-specific biomarkers are routinely tested for in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as a part of the differential diagnosis of dementia. In antemortem CSF samples from 117 patients with different types of neuropathologically confirmed neurodegenerative disease with dementia, we assessed total-tau (t-tau), phosphorylated-tau (181P) (p-tau), amyloid-beta (1–42) (Aβ42), TAR DNA binding protein (TDP)-43, progranulin (PGRN), and neurofilament light (NfL) chain levels, and positivity of protein 14-3-3. We found t-tau levels and the t-tau/p-tau ratios were significantly higher in prion diseases compared to the other neurodegenerative diseases. Statistically significant differences in the t-tau/Aβ42 ratio predominantly corresponded to t-tau levels in prion diseases and Aβ42 levels in AD. TDP-43 levels were significantly lower in prion diseases. Additionally, the TDP-43/Aβ42 ratio was better able to distinguish Alzheimer’s disease from other neurodegenerative diseases compared to using Aβ42 alone. In frontotemporal lobar degeneration, PRGN levels were significantly higher in comparison to other neurodegenerative diseases. There is an increasing need for biomarkers suitable for diagnostic workups for neurodegenerative diseases. It appears that adding TDP-43 and PGRN to the testing panel for neurodegenerative diseases could improve the resolution of differential diagnoses.
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Tau immunotherapies: Lessons learned, current status and future considerations. Neuropharmacology 2020; 175:108104. [PMID: 32360477 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The majority of clinical trials targeting the tau protein in Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies are tau immunotherapies. Because tau pathology correlates better with the degree of dementia than amyloid-β lesions, targeting tau is likely to be more effective in improving cognition than clearing amyloid-β in Alzheimer's disease. However, the development of tau therapies is in many ways more complex than for amyloid-β therapies as briefly outlined in this review. Most of the trials are on humanized antibodies, which may have very different properties than the original mouse antibodies. The impact of these differences are to a large extent unknown, can be difficult to decipher, and may not always be properly considered. Furthermore, the ideal antibody properties for efficacy are not well established and can depend on several factors. However, considering the varied approaches in clinical trials, there is a general optimism that at least some of these trials may provide functional benefits to patients suffering of various tauopathies. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'The Quest for Disease-Modifying Therapies for Neurodegenerative Disorders'.
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Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second commonest cause of young onset dementia. Our understanding of FTD and its related syndromes has advanced significantly in recent years. Among the most prominent areas of progress is the overlap between FTD, MND, and other neurodegenerative conditions at a clinicopathologic and genetic level. In parallel major advances in neuroimaging techniques, the discovery of new genetic mutations as well as the development of potential biomarkers may serve to further expand knowledge of the biologic processes at play in FTD and may in turn propel research toward identifying curative and preventative pharmacologic therapies. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the clinical, pathologic, and genetic complexities of FTD and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma M Devenney
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Rebekah M Ahmed
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - John R Hodges
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Rivero-Santana A, Ferreira D, Perestelo-Pérez L, Westman E, Wahlund LO, Sarría A, Serrano-Aguilar P. Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers for the Differential Diagnosis between Alzheimer's Disease and Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration: Systematic Review, HSROC Analysis, and Confounding Factors. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 55:625-644. [PMID: 27716663 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Differential diagnosis in dementia is at present one of the main challenges both in clinical practice and research. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers are included in the current diagnostic criteria of Alzheimer's disease (AD) but their clinical utility is still unclear. OBJECTIVE We performed a systematic review of studies analyzing the diagnostic performance of CSF Aβ42, total tau (t-tau), and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) in the discrimination between AD and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) dementias. METHODS The following electronic databases were consulted until May 2016: Medline and PreMedline, EMBASE, PsycInfo, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and CRD. For the first-time in the field, a Hierarchical Summary Receiver Operating Characteristic (HRSOC) model was applied, which avoids methodological problems of meta-analyses based on summary points of sensitivity and specificity values. We also investigated relevant confounders of CSF biomarkers' diagnostic performance such as age, disease duration, and global cognitive impairment. RESULTS The p-tau/Aβ42 ratio showed the best diagnostic performance. No statistically significant effects of the confounders were observed. Nonetheless, the p-tau/Aβ42 ratio may be especially indicated for younger patients. P-tau may be preferable for less cognitively impaired patients (high MMSE scores) and the t-tau/Aβ42 ratio for more cognitively impaired patients (low MMSE scores). CONCLUSION The p-tau/Aβ42 ratio has potential for being implemented in the clinical routine for the differential diagnosis between AD and FTLD. It is of utmost importance that future studies report information on confounders such as age, disease duration, and cognitive impairment, which should also stimulate understanding of the role of these factors in disease mechanisms and pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amado Rivero-Santana
- Canarian Foundation for Health Research (FUNCANIS), Tenerife, Spain.,Red de Investigación en Servicios de Salud en Enfermedades Crónicas (REDISSEC), Tenerife, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of the Canary Islands (CIBICAN), Tenerife, Spain
| | - Daniel Ferreira
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lilisbeth Perestelo-Pérez
- Red de Investigación en Servicios de Salud en Enfermedades Crónicas (REDISSEC), Tenerife, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of the Canary Islands (CIBICAN), Tenerife, Spain.,Evaluation Unit of the Canary Islands Health Service (SESCS), Tenerife, Spain
| | - Eric Westman
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars-Olof Wahlund
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Antonio Sarría
- Red de Investigación en Servicios de Salud en Enfermedades Crónicas (REDISSEC), Tenerife, Spain.,Agency for Health Technology Assessment (AETS), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro Serrano-Aguilar
- Red de Investigación en Servicios de Salud en Enfermedades Crónicas (REDISSEC), Tenerife, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of the Canary Islands (CIBICAN), Tenerife, Spain.,Evaluation Unit of the Canary Islands Health Service (SESCS), Tenerife, Spain
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Sigurdsson EM. Tau Immunotherapies for Alzheimer's Disease and Related Tauopathies: Progress and Potential Pitfalls. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 64:S555-S565. [PMID: 29865056 PMCID: PMC6171771 DOI: 10.3233/jad-179937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Tau immunotherapies have now advanced from proof-of-concept studies to Phase II clinical trials. This review briefly outlines developments in the field and discusses how these therapies may work, which involves multiple variables that are connected in complex ways. These various factors are likely to define therapeutic success in humans and have not been thoroughly investigated, at least based on published reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einar M. Sigurdsson
- New York University School of Medicine, Departments of Neuroscience and Physiology, and Psychiatry, Neuroscience Institute, Science Building, 435 East 30 Street, Room SB1115, New York, NY 10016,
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Rostgaard N, Roos P, Portelius E, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Simonsen AH, Nielsen JE. CSF neurofilament light concentration is increased in presymptomatic CHMP2B mutation carriers. Neurology 2017; 90:e157-e163. [PMID: 29237796 PMCID: PMC5772154 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000004799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective A rare cause of familial frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a mutation in the CHMP2B gene on chromosome 3 (FTD-3), described in a Danish family. Here we examine whether CSF biomarkers change in the preclinical phase of the disease. Methods In this cross-sectional explorative study, we analyzed CSF samples from 16 mutation carriers and 14 noncarriers from the Danish FTD-3 family. CSF biomarkers included total tau (t-tau) and neurofilament light chain (NfL) as a marker for neurodegeneration, phosphorylated tau (p-tau) as a marker for tau pathology, β-amyloid (Aβ) 38, 40, and 42 (Aβ38, Aβ40, and Aβ42) to monitor Aβ metabolism, and YKL-40 as a marker of neuroinflammation. Aβ isoform concentrations were measured using a multiplexed immunoassay; t-tau, p-tau, NfL, and YKL-40 concentrations were measured using sandwich ELISAs. Results CSF NfL concentration was significantly increased in mutation carriers vs noncarriers. Further, CSF NfL concentration was significantly higher in symptomatic mutation carriers compared to presymptomatic carriers, and also significantly higher in presymptomatic carriers compared to noncarriers. No differences in t-tau and p-tau and YKL-40 concentrations between controls and mutation carriers were observed. CSF concentrations of the Aβ peptides Aβ38 and Aβ40 but not Aβ42 were significantly lower in mutation carriers compared to noncarriers. Conclusions Increased NfL levels in presymptomatic individuals and in symptomatic patients with FTD-3 indicate a continuous process of neurodegeneration from the presymptomatic to symptomatic state. Although not specific for FTD-3 pathology, our data suggest that CSF NfL could serve as a valuable biomarker to detect onset of neurodegeneration in FTD-3 mutation carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Rostgaard
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Peter Roos
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Erik Portelius
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Kaj Blennow
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Anja H Simonsen
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK.
| | - Jørgen E Nielsen
- From the Danish Dementia Research Centre (N.R., P.R., A.H.S., J.E.N.), Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Sahlgrenska University Hospital; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology (E.P., K.B., H.Z.), Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; and Department of Molecular Neuroscience and UK Dementia Research Institute (H.Z.), UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
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Rostgaard N, Waldemar G, Nielsen JE, Simonsen AH. Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Familial Forms of Alzheimer's Disease and Frontotemporal Dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2016; 40:54-62. [PMID: 25998699 DOI: 10.1159/000381828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As dementia is a fast-growing health care problem, it is becoming an increasingly urgent need to provide an early diagnosis in order to offer patients the best medical treatment and care. Validated biomarkers which reflect the pathology and disease progression are essential for diagnosis and are important when developing new therapies. Today, the core protein biomarkers amyloid-β42, total tau and phosphorylated tau in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are used to diagnose Alzheimer's disease (AD), because these biomarkers have shown to reflect the underlying amyloid and tau pathology. However, the biomarkers have proved insufficient predictors of dementias with a different pathology, e.g. frontotemporal dementia (FTD); furthermore, the biomarkers are not useful for early AD diagnosis. Familial dementias with a known disease-causing mutation can be extremely valuable to study; yet the biomarker profiles in patients with familial dementias are not clear. This review summarizes CSF biomarker findings from studies on symptomatic and presymptomatic individuals carrying a mutation in one of the genes known to cause early-onset familial AD or FTD. In conclusion, the biomarker profile of inherited AD is quite similar between carriers of different mutations as well as similar to the profile found in sporadic AD, whereas familial FTD does not seem to have a clear biomarker profile. Hence, new biomarkers are needed for FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Rostgaard
- Danish Dementia Research Centre, Department of Neurology, Section 6911, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Agresta AM, De Palma A, Bardoni A, Salvini R, Iadarola P, Mauri PL. Proteomics as an innovative tool to investigate frontotemporal disorders. Proteomics Clin Appl 2015; 10:457-69. [DOI: 10.1002/prca.201500090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Agresta
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Unit; Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB-CNR); Segrate (MI) Italy
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies; Biochemistry Unit; University of Pavia; Pavia Italy
- Doctorate School of Molecular and Translational Medicine; University of Milan; Segrate (MI) Italy
| | - Antonella De Palma
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Unit; Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB-CNR); Segrate (MI) Italy
| | - Anna Bardoni
- Biochemistry Unit; Department of Molecular Medicine; University of Pavia; Pavia Italy
| | - Roberta Salvini
- Biochemistry Unit; Department of Molecular Medicine; University of Pavia; Pavia Italy
| | - Paolo Iadarola
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies; Biochemistry Unit; University of Pavia; Pavia Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Mauri
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Unit; Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB-CNR); Segrate (MI) Italy
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Abstract
Antibodies or their derivatives as imaging probes for pathological tau protein have great potential, but have not been well studied. In particular, smaller, single-chain-variable antibody fragments (scFv's) are attractive for detecting tau lesions in live subjects. Here, we generated libraries of scFv's and identified numerous phospho-tau-selective scFv's. Peripheral injection of one of these scFv's consistently resulted in a strong in vivo brain signal in transgenic tauopathy mice, but not in wild-type or amyloid-β plaque mice. The parent tau antibody provided similar results, albeit with a weaker signal intensity. The imaging signal correlated very well with colocalization of the probe with intraneuronal tau aggregates. Both were associated with markers of endosomes, autophagosomes, and lysosomes, suggesting their interaction in these degradation pathways. Such specific antibody-derived imaging probes have great potential as diagnostic markers for Alzheimer's disease and related tauopathies.
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Ahmed RM, Paterson RW, Warren JD, Zetterberg H, O'Brien JT, Fox NC, Halliday GM, Schott JM. Biomarkers in dementia: clinical utility and new directions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014; 85:1426-34. [PMID: 25261571 PMCID: PMC4335455 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-307662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Imaging, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood-based biomarkers have the potential to improve the accuracy by which specific causes of dementia can be diagnosed in vivo, provide insights into the underlying pathophysiology, and may be used as inclusion criteria and outcome measures for clinical trials. While a number of imaging and CSF biomarkers are currently used for each of these purposes, this is an evolving field, with numerous potential biomarkers in varying stages of research and development. We review the currently available biomarkers for the three most common forms of neurodegenerative dementia, and give an overview of research techniques that may in due course make their way into the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Ahmed
- Neuroscience Research Australia and the University of NSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - R W Paterson
- Dementia Research Centre, University College London Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - J D Warren
- Dementia Research Centre, University College London Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - H Zetterberg
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - J T O'Brien
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - N C Fox
- Dementia Research Centre, University College London Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
| | - G M Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia and the University of NSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - J M Schott
- Dementia Research Centre, University College London Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
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