Multifunctional hybrid-carbon nanotubes: new horizon in drug delivery and targeting

Novel Vectors and Administrations for mRNA Delivery

mRNA therapy has shown great potential in infectious disease vaccines, cancer immunotherapy, protein replacement therapy, gene editing, and other fields due to its central role in all life processes. However, mRNA is challenging to pass through the cell membrane due to its significant negative charges and degradation from RNase, so the key to mRNA therapy is efficient packaging and delivery of it with appropriate vectors. Presently researchers have developed various vectors such as viruses and liposomes, but these conventional vectors are now difficult to meet the growing requirement like safety, efficiency, and targeting, so many novel delivery vectors with unique advantages have emerged recently. This review mainly introduces two categories of novel vectors: biomacromolecules and inorganic nanoparticles, as well as two novel methods of control and administration based on these novel vectors: controlled-release administration and non-invasive administration. These novel delivery strategies have the advantages of high safety, biocompatibility, versatility, intelligence, and targeting. This paper analyzes the challenges faced by the field of mRNA delivery in depth, and discusses how to use the characteristics of novel vectors and administrations to solve these problems.

Carbon-based nanostructures for cancer therapy and drug delivery applications

Synthesis, design, characterization, and application of carbon-based nanostructures (CBNSs) as drug carriers have attracted a great deal of interest over the past half of the century because of their promising chemical, thermal, physical, optical, mechanical, and electrical properties and their structural diversity. CBNSs are well-known in drug delivery applications due to their unique features such as easy cellular uptake, high drug loading ability, and thermal ablation. CBNSs, including carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, nanodiamond, graphene, and carbon quantum dots have been quite broadly examined for drug delivery systems. This review not only summarizes the most recent studies on developing carbon-based nanostructures for drug delivery (e.g. delivery carrier, cancer therapy and bioimaging), but also tries to deal with the challenges and opportunities resulting from the expansion in use of these materials in the realm of drug delivery. This class of nanomaterials requires advanced techniques for synthesis and surface modifications, yet a lot of critical questions such as their toxicity, biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and fate of CBNSs in biological systems must be answered.

Recent trends in carbon nanotubes based prostate cancer therapy: A biomedical hybrid for diagnosis and treatment

At present treatment methods for cancer are limited, partially due to the solubility, poor cellular distribution of drug molecules and, the incapability of drugs to annoy the cellular barriers. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) generally have excellent physio-chemical properties, which include high-level penetration into the cell membrane, high surface area and high capacity of drug loading by in circulating modification with bio-molecules, project them as an appropriate candidate to diagnose and deliver drugs to prostate cancer (PCa). Additionally, the chemically modified CNTs which have excellent 'Biosensing' properties therefore makes it easy for detecting PCa without fluorescent agent and thus targets the particular site of PCa and also, Drug delivery can accomplish a high efficacy, enhanced permeability with less toxic effects. While CNTs have been mainly engaged in cancer treatment, a few studies are focussed on the diagnosis and treatment of PCa. Here, we detailly reviewed the current progress of the CNTs based diagnosis and targeted drug delivery system for managing and curing PCa.

The effects of functionalization of carbon nanotubes on toxicological parameters in mice

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have emerged as a new class of multifunctional nanoparticles in biomedicine, but their multiple in vivo effects remain unclear. Also, the impact of various functionalization types and duration of exposures are still unidentified. Herein, we report a complete toxicological study to evaluate the effects of single- and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs and MWCNTs) with either amine or carboxylic acid (COOH) surface functional groups. The results showed that significant oxidative stress and the subsequent cell apoptosis could be resulted in both acute and, mainly, in chronic intravenous administrations. Also, male reproductive parameters were altered during these exposures. The amino-functionalized CNTs had more toxic properties compared with the COOH functionalized group, and also, in some groups, the multiwalled nanotubes were more active in eliciting cytotoxicity than the single-walled nanotubes. Interestingly, the SWCNTs-COOH had the least alterations in most of the parameters. Evidently, it is concluded that the toxicity of CNTs in specific organs can be minimized through particular surface functionalizations.

Advances in drug delivery, gene delivery and therapeutic agents based on dendritic materials

Dendrimers are synthetic polymers that grow in three dimensions into well-defined structures. Their morphological appearance resembles a number of trees connected by a common point. Dendritic nanoparticles have been studied for a large number of pharmaceutical and biomedical applications including gene and drug delivery, clinical diagnosis and MRI. Despite the application of dendrimers, research is still in its childhood in comparison with liposomes and other nanomaterials. They are now playing a key role in several therapeutic strategies, with dendrimer-based products in clinical trials. The aim of this review is to describe the state-of-the-art of biomedical applications of dendrimers – and dendrimer conjugates – such as drug and gene delivery and antiviral activity.

Raman spectrum spectral imaging revealing the molecular mechanism of Berberine-induced Jurkat cell apoptosis and the receptor-mediated Berberine delivery system

Berberine (BBR), a traditional Chinese herb extract medicine, reveals some anticancer effects in leukemia, but it remains controversial about the molecular mechanism of BBR-induced leukemia cell apoptosis. In this study, combining Raman spectrum and spectral imaging, both the biochemical changes of BBR-induced Jurkat cell apoptosis and the precise distribution of BBR in single cell are presented. In contrast, we also show the corresponding results of Jatrorrhizine (JTZ) and Palmatine (PMT), two structural analogues of BBR. It is found that all three structural analogues can induce cell apoptosis by breaking DNA and the main action sites are located in phosphate backbone and base pair groups, but their action on cell cycle are different, in which BBR leads to the S phase arrest while JTZ and PMT are on the G2 phase arrest. Moreover, from the Raman spectra of DNA treated with different drugs, we find that the content of phosphate backbone and base pair groups in BBR-treated DNA are larger than those in JTZ or PMT. And this result reflects the strong capability of BBR breaking DNA backbone relative to JTZ or PMT, suggesting that the existence of methylene-dioxy on the 2, 3 units of A ring on the quinoline ring can greatly enhance the capability of BBR breaking DNA backbone, so the action effect of BBR-induced Jurkat cell apoptosis is better than those of PMT or JTZ. Further, by using Raman spectral imaging approach, we achieve the precise distribution of BBR in single cell, it is found that the receptor-mediated BBR targeting delivery based single-wall carbon nanotube and folic acid (SWNT/FA) reveals excellent performance in BBR targeting delivery relative to the conventional BBR diffusion approach. Importantly, these results demonstrate that Raman spectrum and spectral imaging should be a powerful tool to study the molecular mechanism of drug-induced cell apoptosis and evaluate the efficiency of drug delivery system.

Biomedical applications of carbon nanomaterials: Drug and gene delivery potentials

One of the major components in the development of nanomedicines is the choice of the right biomaterial, which notably determines the subsequent biological responses. The popularity of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) has been on the rise due to their numerous applications in the fields of drug delivery, bioimaging, tissue engineering, and biosensing. Owing to their considerably high surface area, multifunctional surface chemistry, and excellent optical activity, novel functionalized CNMs possess efficient drug-loading capacity, biocompatibility, and lack of immunogenicity. Over the past few decades, several advances have been made on the functionalization of CNMs to minimize their health concerns and enhance their biosafety. Recent evidence has also implied that CNMs can be functionalized with bioactive peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and drugs to achieve composites with remarkably low toxicity and high pharmaceutical efficiency. This review focuses on the three main classes of CNMs, including fullerenes, graphenes, and carbon nanotubes, and their recent biomedical applications.

Molecular Consortia-Various Structural and Synthetic Concepts for More Effective Therapeutics Synthesis

The design and discovery of novel drug candidates are the initial and most probably the crucial steps in the drug development process. One of the tasks of medicinal chemistry is to produce new molecules that have a desired biological effect. However, even today the search for new pharmaceuticals is a very complicated process that is hard to rationalize. Literature provides many scientific reports on future prospects of design of potentially useful drugs. Many trends have been proposed for the design of new drugs containing different structures (dimers, heterodimers, heteromers, adducts, associates, complexes, biooligomers, dendrimers, dual-, bivalent-, multifunction drugs and codrugs, identical or non-identical twin drugs, mixed or combo drugs, supramolecular particles and various nanoindividuals. Recently much attention has been paid to different strategies of molecular hybridization. In this paper, various molecular combinations were described e.g., drug–drug or drug-non-drug combinations which are expressed in a schematic multi-factor form called a molecular matrix, consisting of four factors: association mode, connection method, and the number of elements and linkers. One of the most popular trends is to create small–small molecule combinations such as different hybrids, codrugs, drug–drug conjugates (DDCs) and small-large molecule combinations such as antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs) or different prodrugs and macromolecular therapeutics. A review of the structural possibilities of active framework combinations indicates that a wide range of potentially effective novel-type compounds can be formed. What is particularly important is that new therapeutics can be obtained in fast, efficient, and selective methods using current trends in chemical synthesis and the design of drugs such as the “Lego” concept or rational green approach.

Emergence in the functionalized carbon nanotubes as smart nanocarriers for drug delivery applications

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are the newer generation advanced materials for diverse applications, starting from physical, mechanical, chemical and biological sciences. However, the present era of healthcare industry is extensively using CNTs for exploring their applications in mitigating diverse needs. The considered attention in CNTs is due to their inimitable properties such as size and aspect ratio covering surface area to the length, and amenable electrical, thermal and mechanical properties. Available in diverse forms, viz. single-walled, double walled or multi-walled structures, CNTs of different forms possess multiple advantages in various healthcare segments, and especially in drug delivery for the treatment of diseases. CNTs have proven to be useful in specific drug delivery applications such as controlled and targeted drug delivery to desired sites such as lymphatic and ocular systems, brain and other cancerous tissues. Multiple research reports have been published till date, which unequivocally gives testimony to the potential applications of CNTs. The present book chapter, in this regard, endeavor to provide an overview on synthesis, characterization and drug delivery applications of CNTs. The chapter highlights on recent regulatory standards on commercial production and safety testing of the CNTs for translating them into market.

Carbon nanomaterials in oncology: an expanding horizon

Carbon nanomaterials have been attracting attention in oncology for the development of safe and effective cancer nanomedicines in increasing improved patient compliance for generally recognized as safe (GRAS) prominence. Toxicity, safety and efficacy of carbon nanomaterials are the major concerns in cancer theranostics. Various parameters such as particle size and shape or surface morphology, surface charge, composition, oxidation and nonoxidative-stress-related mechanisms are prone to toxicity of the carbon nanomaterials. Currently, few cancer-related products have been available on the market, although some are underway in preclinical and clinical phases. Thus, our main aim is to provide comprehensive details on the carbon nanomaterials in oncology from the past two decades for patient compliance and safety.

Surface Modified Multifunctional and Stimuli Responsive Nanoparticles for Drug Targeting: Current Status and Uses

Nanocarriers, due to their unique features, are of increased interest among researchers working with pharmaceutical formulations. Polymeric nanoparticles and nanocapsules, involving non-toxic biodegradable polymers, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic-organic nanomaterials, are among the most used carriers for drugs for a broad spectrum of targeted diseases. In fact, oral, injectable, transdermal-dermal and ocular formulations mainly consist of the aforementioned nanomaterials demonstrating promising characteristics such as long circulation, specific targeting, high drug loading capacity, enhanced intracellular penetration, and so on. Over the last decade, huge advances in the development of novel, safer and less toxic nanocarriers with amended properties have been made. In addition, multifunctional nanocarriers combining chemical substances, vitamins and peptides via coupling chemistry, inorganic particles coated by biocompatible materials seem to play a key role considering that functionalization can enhance characteristics such as biocompatibility, targetability, environmental friendliness, and intracellular penetration while also have limited side effects. This review aims to summarize the "state of the art" of drug delivery carriers in nanosize, paying attention to their surface functionalization with ligands and other small or polymeric compounds so as to upgrade active and passive targeting, different release patterns as well as cell targeting and stimuli responsibility. Lastly, future aspects and potential uses of nanoparticulated drug systems are outlined.

Safety and toxicity of nanomaterials for ocular drug delivery applications

Multifunctional nanomaterials are rapidly emerging for ophthalmic delivery of therapeutics to facilitate safe and effective targeting with improved patient compliance. Because of their extremely high area to volume ratio, nanomaterials often have physicochemical properties that are different from those of their larger counterparts. There exists a complex relationship between the physicochemical properties (composition, size, shape, charge, roughness, and porosity) of the nanomaterials and their interaction with the biological system. The eye is a very sensitive accessible organ and is subjected to intended and unintended exposure to nanomaterials. Currently, various ophthalmic formulations are available in the market, while some are underway in preclinical and clinical phases. However, the data on safety, efficacy, and toxicology of these advanced nanomaterials for ocular drug delivery are sparse. Focus of the present review is to provide a comprehensive report on the safety, biocompatibility and toxicities of nanomaterials in the eye.

Development and evaluation of targeting ligand-anchored CNTs as prospective targeted drug delivery system

Our main investigation in the present research was to developt and evaluate targeting ligand-anchored multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as prospective targeted drug delivery system, with a special focus on the MWCNTs surface functionalization (FA-PEG bis-amine functionalized, carboxylated MWCNTs). In vitro release of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) was studied at pH 7.4 phosphate buffer and 5.5 acetate buffer, which displayed initial faster followed by sustained release up to 900 min. Further, 5-FU/FA-PEG bis amine-MWCNTs was found to be long circulating, prolonged half-life and increased drug accumulation in target tissue.