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Zaiser C, Laskowski NM, Müller R, Abdulla K, Sabel L, Ballero Reque C, Brandt G, Paslakis G. The relationship between anabolic androgenic steroid use and body image, eating behavior, and physical activity by gender: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105772. [PMID: 38879097 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
The prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is rising, especially in recreational sports and the general population. While body image significantly influences AAS use, gender differences remain unclear. We examined gender-related connections between AAS use, body image, eating behavior, and physical activity. Following PRISMA guidelines, we analyzed 22 studies: 14 with male-only samples, 5 mixed-gender, 2 with sexual and gender minorities, and 1 with a female-only sample. FINDINGS: confirm body image as a key predictor of AAS use. Though AAS use correlates with eating disorders, outcomes vary by context; for instance, no discernible difference in eating behavior was observed between AAS users and non-users in bodybuilding. Physical activity findings varied, with some studies showing no significant differences between AAS users and non-users. Due to limited gender-comparison studies, conclusive gender-related differences cannot be drawn. This systematic review underscores the complex interplay between AAS use, body image, eating behavior, and physical activity, emphasizing the necessity for further research to develop targeted interventions for diverse populations, addressing AAS-related concerns and promoting overall well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Zaiser
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany.
| | - Nora M Laskowski
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Roland Müller
- Association for Practical Prevention of Eating Disorders, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Kahar Abdulla
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Luisa Sabel
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Cristina Ballero Reque
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Gerrit Brandt
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Georgios Paslakis
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia Lippe, Ruhr-University Bochum, Luebbecke, Germany
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Underwood M, Olivardia R. 'The day you start lifting is the day you become forever small': Bodybuilders explain muscle dysmorphia. Health (London) 2023; 27:998-1018. [PMID: 35473410 DOI: 10.1177/13634593221093494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a pathological preoccupation with muscularity characterised by negative body image, compulsive behaviours, and obsessive thoughts. Since its first identification academics have suggested that it is caused by sociocultural factors. Despite this there has been very little research exploring the role of sociocultural factors in the development and maintenance of MD, and no research that examines MD from within its cultural context. Instead the medical model of MD has dominated understanding. This model presents professionals as the experts on this disorder, and sufferers as pathological individuals in need of expert treatment. This renders cultural context largely irrelevant to understandings of MD. In this paper we present a different kind of expertise with regards MD. We describe the expertise of those most likely to suffer from MD, and upon whom medical descriptions of MD are based: bodybuilders. Specifically, we describe how bodybuilders explain MD (their definition, theory of aetiology and experience of MD, as well as their suggested management strategies), and compare these explanations to the dominant medical model. Through a consideration of the expertise of bodybuilders we break the tunnel vision of medicine, and suggest ways we can move beyond our current under-developed understanding of MD. This paper examines MD from within its cultural context, and in so doing it lays the foundation for a sociocultural explanatory model of MD. If we are to significantly reduce the harms of this disorder we cannot rely solely on treating the few individuals who present to clinicians. Rather we must develop ways to help sufferers to manage their disorder, and to prevent the development of this disorder among those at risk in the first place. To do this we must understand the sociocultural dimensions of MD, and collaborate with bodybuilding communities.
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Martenstyn JA, Maguire S, Griffiths S. A qualitative investigation of the phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia: Part 1. Body Image 2022; 43:486-503. [PMID: 36356368 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a psychological disorder defined by preoccupation with one's perceived lack of muscularity and/or leanness, causing significant functional impairment. Studies of individuals with diagnosed MD are rare and no large-scale qualitative studies of the disorder exist. We conducted a qualitative study exploring the lived experiences of 29 individuals with diagnosed MD. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we generated five themes capturing the core features of MD. We identified two distinct phenotypes of MD: a "muscular/lean phenotype" focused on both gaining muscle and remaining lean, and a "muscular phenotype" with a sole preoccupation of increasing muscle mass. Participants also described their physique goals as never-obtained "moving goalposts", differed in their desire for muscularity versus leanness, and experienced fluctuations in body dissatisfaction during "cutting" versus "bulking" phases, and pre- versus post-workout. Almost all participants reported avoiding public body exposure and compulsively mirror-checking. Most were rigorous dieters who meticulously tracked their caloric and macronutrient intake, and were obsessive about meeting protein targets. Disruptions to dieting and training were often minimised by compromising their social lives. Low self-esteem appeared a predisposing factor for MD, while social comparison, body image distortion, and integration of MD into one's self-identity may represent maintaining factors. Additional clinically valuable insights into MD's phenomenology are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan A Martenstyn
- Clinical Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; InsideOut Institute for Eating Disorders, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
| | - Sarah Maguire
- InsideOut Institute for Eating Disorders, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Sydney Local Health District, NSW Health, St Leonards, NSW, Australia
| | - Scott Griffiths
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Abstract
The sport of competitive bodybuilding requires an intense regimen of weightlifting and dieting, often aided with muscle-building or fat-burning drugs, and culminating in an on-stage posing competition. Despite these rigorous demands, competitive bodybuilding is popular, with thousands of competitions performed annually around the world. Although many studies have addressed the psychological features of various sports and the athletes who compete in them, few have examined the psychological aspects of bodybuilding. Even fewer studies have specifically examined competitive bodybuilders, as opposed to the much larger group of "recreational" bodybuilders who do not compete. The limited available literature suggests that competitive bodybuilders may show an increased risk for four categories of psychopathology: muscle dysmorphia, eating disorders, abuse of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs, and exercise dependence. However, in each of these categories, one must carefully distinguish between the planned and dedicated behaviors required for success in the sport, as opposed to frankly pathological behaviors that impair social or occupational function, cause subjective distress, or lead to adverse health consequences. Future work should attempt to better assess the nature and prevalence of these conditions among competitive bodybuilders, with perhaps greatest attention to the issue of drug use.
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Goldman AL, Pope HG, Bhasin S. The Health Threat Posed by the Hidden Epidemic of Anabolic Steroid Use and Body Image Disorders Among Young Men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2019; 104:1069-1074. [PMID: 30239802 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2018-01706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The prevalence of body image disorders and anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use is increasing, despite the evidence of their serious adverse health effects and despite the passage of laws regulating their sales. Here we review the evolution of the dual emerging epidemics of body image disorders and AAS use, adverse health effects of AASs, and the need for an integrated health policy and regulatory response. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We searched for studies published prior to June 2018. Quality of evidence was low to moderate because of its observational nature; heterogeneity of eligibility criteria; variable doses; reliance on retrospective self-reported data in many studies; and variable quality of outcome ascertainment. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Most AAS users are nonathlete young men, who use these substances to look lean and more muscular. Some of these men suffer from "muscle dysmorphia," a form of body dysmorphic disorder. AASs has been associated with cardiovascular disorders, psychiatric disorders, AAS-withdrawal hypogonadism, infertility, neurotoxic effects, musculoskeletal injuries, liver toxicity, and needle-borne infections. Potential adverse effects may be compounded by the use of other substances (e.g., opioids) and high-risk behaviors. Unregulated Internet sales of AASs and selective androgen receptor modulators, which are easily purchased without a prescription, are of concern because of their potential to fuel the epidemic among adolescents and the military. CONCLUSIONS Integrated nationwide efforts are necessary to raise public awareness of this epidemic, to study long-term health effects of AASs and treatment strategies, and to reform regulations to stem the epidemics of AAS use and body image disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna L Goldman
- Research Program in Men's Health: Aging and Metabolism, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Harrison G Pope
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts
| | - Shalender Bhasin
- Research Program in Men's Health: Aging and Metabolism, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Boston Claude D. Pepper Older Americans Independence Center, Boston, Massachusetts
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Cuadrado J, Morin J, Hernandez P, Yubero E, Bégin C, Michel G. Psychopathologie de la dysmorphie musculaire : analyse critique de la littérature internationale. ANNALES MEDICO-PSYCHOLOGIQUES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amp.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Bates G, Tod D, Leavey C, McVeigh J. An evidence-based socioecological framework to understand men’s use of anabolic androgenic steroids and inform interventions in this area. DRUGS: EDUCATION, PREVENTION AND POLICY 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2018.1488947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Geoff Bates
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - David Tod
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Conan Leavey
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Jim McVeigh
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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9
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Kanayama G, Pope HG. History and epidemiology of anabolic androgens in athletes and non-athletes. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 464:4-13. [PMID: 28245998 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The use of androgens, frequently referred to as anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), has grown into a worldwide substance abuse problem over the last several decades. Testosterone was isolated in the 1930s, and numerous synthetic androgens were quickly developed thereafter. Athletes soon discovered the dramatic anabolic effects of these hormones, and AAS spread rapidly through elite athletics and bodybuilding from the 1950s through the 1970s. However it was not until the 1980s that widespread AAS use emerged from the elite athletic world and into the general population. Today, the great majority of AAS users are not competitive athletes, but instead are typically young to middle-aged men who use these drugs primarily for personal appearance. AAS abuse has now become particularly prevalent in regions such as Scandinavia, the United States, Brazil, and British Commonwealth countries, but remains rare in countries such as China, Korea, and Japan - a pattern that reflects cultural differences in attitudes towards male muscularity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- From the Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Harrison G Pope
- From the Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Schneider SC, Baillie AJ, Mond J, Turner CM, Hudson JL. The classification of body dysmorphic disorder symptoms in male and female adolescents. J Affect Disord 2018; 225:429-437. [PMID: 28858657 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) was categorised in DSM-5 within the newly created 'obsessive-compulsive and related disorders' chapter, however this classification remains subject to debate. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test competing models of the co-occurrence of symptoms of BDD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, unipolar depression, anxiety, and eating disorders in a community sample of adolescents, and to explore potential sex differences in these models. METHODS Self-report questionnaires assessing disorder symptoms were completed by 3149 Australian adolescents. The fit of correlated factor models was calculated separately in males and females, and measurement invariance testing compared parameters of the best-fitting model between males and females. RESULTS All theoretical models of the classification of BDD had poor fit to the data. Good fit was found for a novel model where BDD symptoms formed a distinct latent factor, correlated with affective disorder and eating disorder latent factors. Metric non-invariance was found between males and females, and the majority of factor loadings differed between males and females. Correlations between some latent factors also differed by sex. LIMITATIONS Only cross-sectional data were collected, and the study did not assess a broad range of DSM-5 defined eating disorder symptoms or other disorders in the DSM-5 obsessive-compulsive and related disorders chapter. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first to statistically evaluate competing models of BDD classification. The findings highlight the unique features of BDD and its associations with affective and eating disorders. Future studies examining the classification of BDD should consider developmental and sex differences in their models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie C Schneider
- Centre for Emotional Health, Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrew J Baillie
- Centre for Emotional Health, Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia; NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Mental Health and Substance Use, Australia
| | - Jonathan Mond
- Centre for Rural Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia; Centre for Health Research, School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Cynthia M Turner
- School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Hudson
- Centre for Emotional Health, Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
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Schneider SC, Mond J, Turner CM, Hudson JL. Sex Differences in the Presentation of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in a Community Sample of Adolescents. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 48:516-528. [PMID: 28541768 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2017.1321001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The current study sought to explore sex differences in the presentation of probable full-syndrome and subthreshold body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in adolescents from an Australian community sample. Specifically, it examined sex differences in the types of BDD symptoms endorsed, body areas of concern, and the association with elevated symptoms of comorbid disorders. In male participants, it also compared the presenting features of those with and without muscle dysmorphia. Of 3,149 adolescents assessed using self-report questionnaires, 162 (5.1%) reported probable BDD (57.4% male, Mage = 14.89 years, SD = 1.33, primarily from Oceanian or European cultural backgrounds). All participants completed measures of BDD symptoms; past mental health service use; and symptoms of anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders. Male participants completed additional measures of quality of life, drive for muscularity, hyperactivity, conduct disorder, peer problems, and emotional symptoms. Controlling for demographic variables that varied by sex, male and female participants reported similar BDD symptom severity, rates of most elevated comorbid symptoms, and mental health service use. Concerns regarding muscularity, breasts/nipples, and thighs differed by sex. Female participants were more likely than male participants to report elevated generalized anxiety symptoms. In male participants, muscle dysmorphia was not associated with greater severity across most measures. The presenting features of BDD were broadly similar in male and female participants, and in male participants with and without muscle dysmorphia. Future research should seek to increase mental health service use in adolescents with BDD and to improve rates of disorder detection in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan Mond
- b School of Medicine , Western Sydney University.,c School of Health Sciences , University of Tasmania
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12
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Schneider SC, Storch EA. Improving the Detection of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Clinical Practice. J Cogn Psychother 2017; 31:230-241. [PMID: 32755898 DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.31.4.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this article is to raise awareness of the underdiagnosis of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in clinical practice and provide suggestions to overcome key barriers to BDD detection. Disclosure of BDD symptoms is uncommon during routine assessments but can be increased by asking specifically about such symptoms. When BDD symptoms are present, it is important to differentiate them from anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders, which may present with some similarities and are commonly comorbid with BDD. Assessment of BDD should be sensitive to issues of poor insight, elevated suicide risk, subthreshold BDD presentations, and the possibility of BDD by proxy. Furthermore, assessment should consider the potential impact of age, gender, ethnicity, and minor physical defects on the presentation of BDD. Improving the assessment of BDD in routine clinical practice will enhance disclosure, improve case conceptualization, and provide the opportunity to deliver appropriate treatment for this underdiagnosed and often serious disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie C Schneider
- Department of Pediatrics, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida
| | - Eric A Storch
- University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida.,Rogers Behavioral Health, Tampa, Florida.,Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital, St. Petersburg, Florida
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Santos Filho CAD, Tirico PP, Stefano SC, Touyz SW, Claudino AM. Systematic review of the diagnostic category muscle dysmorphia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2016; 50:322-33. [PMID: 26553217 DOI: 10.1177/0004867415614106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES (1) To collect, analyze and synthetize the evidence on muscle dysmorphia diagnosis as defined by Pope et al. and (2) To discuss its appropriate nosology and inclusion as a specific category in psychiatric classificatory systems. METHOD A systematic search in the MEDLINE, the PsycNET, the LILACS and SciELO databases and in the International Journal of Eating Disorders was conducted looking for articles published between January 1997 and October 2014 and in EMBASE database between January 1997 and August 2013. Only epidemiological and analytical studies were considered for selection. The methodological quality of included studies was assessed according to the Evidence-Based Mental Health and the National Health and Medical Research Council's guidelines. The support for inclusion of muscle dysmorphia in psychiatric classificatory systems was examined against Blashfield et al.'s criteria. RESULTS Thirty-four articles were considered eligible out of 5136. Most of the studies were cross-sectional and enrolled small, non-clinical samples. The methodological quality of all selected papers was graded at the lowest hierarchical level due to studies' designs. Forty-one percent of the publications considered the available evidence insufficient to support the inclusion of muscle dysmorphia in any existing category of psychiatric disorders. The current literature does not fulfill Blashfield et al.'s criteria for the inclusion of muscle dysmorphia as a specific entity in psychiatric diagnostic manuals. CONCLUSION The current evidence does not ensure the validity, clinical utility, nosological classification and inclusion of muscle dysmorphia as a new disorder in classificatory systems of mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stephen W Touyz
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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14
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Eating disorders in men aged midlife and beyond. Maturitas 2015; 81:248-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Eli Joubert H, Melluish S. Considering anabolic androgenic steroid use in relation to non-substance related diagnostic categories with special emphasis on eating disorders: a systematic review. JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE USE 2014. [DOI: 10.3109/14659891.2014.977974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Sladek MR, Engeln R, Miller SA. Development and validation of the Male Body Talk Scale: a psychometric investigation. Body Image 2014; 11:233-44. [PMID: 24958658 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 02/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This paper details the development of the Male Body Talk (MBT) scale and five studies supporting the psychometric soundness of scores on this new measure. Participants were 18-65-year-old men recruited via Amazon's Mechanical Turk, introductory psychology courses, and snowball sampling. The MBT scale assesses the frequency with which men engage in negatively valenced body-related conversations with others. Two subscales were identified through a combination of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The Muscle Talk subscale assesses men's tendency to express concerns regarding degree of muscularity and being too small. The Fat Talk subscale assesses men's tendency to express concerns regarding level of body fat and being overweight. Scores on the MBT scale demonstrated strong internal consistency and moderate test-retest reliability. Evidence of convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of scores on the MBT scale is presented. This new measure is a useful tool for examining how often men engage in negative body talk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Sladek
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, United States.
| | - Renee Engeln
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, United States
| | - Steven A Miller
- Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, United States
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Pope HG, Wood RI, Rogol A, Nyberg F, Bowers L, Bhasin S. Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev 2014; 35:341-75. [PMID: 24423981 PMCID: PMC4026349 DOI: 10.1210/er.2013-1058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite the high prevalence of performance-enhancing drug (PED) use, media attention has focused almost entirely on PED use by elite athletes to illicitly gain a competitive advantage in sports, and not on the health risks of PEDs. There is a widespread misperception that PED use is safe or that adverse effects are manageable. In reality, the vast majority of PED users are not athletes but rather nonathlete weightlifters, and the adverse health effects of PED use are greatly underappreciated. This scientific statement synthesizes available information on the medical consequences of PED use, identifies gaps in knowledge, and aims to focus the attention of the medical community and policymakers on PED use as an important public health problem. PED users frequently consume highly supraphysiologic doses of PEDs, combine them with other PEDs and/or other classical drugs of abuse, and display additional associated risk factors. PED use has been linked to an increased risk of death and a wide variety of cardiovascular, psychiatric, metabolic, endocrine, neurologic, infectious, hepatic, renal, and musculoskeletal disorders. Because randomized trials cannot ethically duplicate the large doses of PEDs and the many factors associated with PED use, we need observational studies to collect valid outcome data on the health risks associated with PEDs. In addition, we need studies regarding the prevalence of PED use, the mechanisms by which PEDs exert their adverse health effects, and the interactive effects of PEDs with sports injuries and other high-risk behaviors. We also need randomized trials to assess therapeutic interventions for treating the adverse effects of PEDs, such as the anabolic-androgen steroid withdrawal syndrome. Finally, we need to raise public awareness of the serious health consequences of PEDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harrison G Pope
- McLean Hospital (H.G.P.), Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478; University of Southern California (R.I.W.), Los Angeles, California 90089; University of Virginia (A.R.), Charlottesville, Virginia 22904; Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, (F.N.), Upsala University, SE-751 24, Upsala, Sweden; United States Anti-Doping Agency (L.B.), Colorado Springs, Colorado 80919; and Brigham and Women's Hospital (S.B.), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Culture, psychosomatics and substance abuse: the example of body image drugs. PSYCHOTHERAPY AND PSYCHOSOMATICS 2012; 81:73-8. [PMID: 22261875 PMCID: PMC3369247 DOI: 10.1159/000330415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass., USA,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass., USA
| | - James I. Hudson
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass., USA,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass., USA
| | - Harrison G. Pope
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass., USA,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass., USA,*Harrison G. Pope Jr., MD, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478 (USA), Tel. +1 617 855 2911, E-Mail
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