Hormonal contraception and ovarian pathology

Parity and risk of ovarian cysts: Cross-sectional evidence from the Dongfeng-Tongji cohort study

Little is known about the association between parity and the risk of ovarian cysts. The aim of this study was to examine the association between parity and the risk of ovarian cysts among a population of Chinese women. A total of 20 502 women aged 45-86 years from the Dongfeng-Tongji Cohort study completed baseline questionnaires, medical examination and provided baseline blood samples. Participants were categorized into four groups according to parity (one, two, three, and four or more live births). Logistic regression models were used to investigate the association between parity and the risk of ovarian cysts. The prevalence of ovarian cysts in the study population was 4.0% (816/20 502). Increasing parity was associated with decreasing risk of ovarian cysts without adjustment for any covariates and after age-adjusted model (P<0.001). After adjusting for potential confounders, women who had had four or more live births had lower risk of ovarian cysts (OR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.27-0.96) compared with women who had had one live birth. There was a consistent but non-significant decreased risk of ovarian cysts for women who had had two, and three live births (OR: 0.85; 95% CI: 0.68-1.05) and (OR: 0.84; 95% CI: 0.59-1.20) respectively compared with women who had had one live birth. It was concluded that higher parity was associated with decreasing risk of ovarian cysts in this population of Chinese women. These findings could be helpful in decision making in clinical practice for gynecologists when evaluating women suspected to have ovarian cysts.

Risk of cancer development in relation to oral contraception

Combined oral contraceptives (COCs) are among the most widely used effective and reversible means of family planning. Their beneficial effects are well documented, but many questions are still raised concerning a possible association between the use of COCs and the development of cancer. The authors provide a broad and up-to-date review of the literature regarding the relation between COC use and carcinogenesis in different organs. Studies have not unequivocally confirmed that such a relation exists with regard to breast cancer. Much research focused on the influence COC use could have on the incidence of cervical cancer; most of it was analyzed by J. Smith and co-workers. These authors confirmed the existence of a weak relation between COC use and the development of cervical carcinoma, especially in women using COCs for longer periods. Ovarian carcinoma has the worst prognosis of all cancers of reproductive organs in women. The risk of developing ovarian cancer in women using COCs is at least 40% smaller than in other women; the degree of protection given by COCs is directly proportional to the duration of use of this form of contraception. Reliable scientific data prove convincingly that the risk of endometrial cancer is smaller in women who used COCs than in women who never took them.

Sex, kings and serial killers and other group-selected human traits

(Note: This unorthodox paper contains the first argument for heart disease being a programmed age change and promoted by the dramatic, post age-40 increases in the hormones FSH and hCG seen in some individuals.) A recent issue of Science suggests that the evolutionary purpose of sex is unknown.

PARADOX

Surviving to adulthood implies a valuable gene combination which is destroyed by sexual recombination. This should be detrimental to offspring. PROPOSED: Sex is group-selected in prey to allow coalescence of beneficial, and disposal of detrimental, mutations in single individuals enabling rapid adaptation to novel predation. Group selection is a universal force driven by local inter-species (not intra-species) competition. Aging, metabolism, litter size, and fixed body size are directly linked. Sexual recombination and chromosomes destroy gene linkage and exist because mutations are usually detrimental, rarely positive, and occur in linked groups. In unevolving environments, sex is selected against and asexuality emerges. Periodic evolution of novel predators, like man, can explain the 'punctuated equilibria' fossil record. Genes inhibited by methylation or chromatin condensation, expressed at older ages in predation-minimized environments, allow for group selection. Stress increases mutation rates and beneficial mutation likelihood. Females select bigger, brighter, louder, or stronger males that can survive predator attention. Size approximates age and thus predator encounters; male traits represent predation-survival potential. Human male traits include, balding, acne, beard-length, wrinkling, graying, nose/ear growth. Progeria accelerates development of most male traits. Domination of groups by single males allows rapid predation-defense evolution: adolescent males are expelled, brave the wild, and expel another group's male to mate. If expelled and dominant males are culled by predation, males reaching puberty first will reproduce. Hormonal acceleration of puberty accelerates aging/population turnover, induces smaller bodies, larger litters. With a fixed group biomass, more, smaller, stressed individuals with faster aging/turnover, increase beneficial mutation likelihood. 'Kin selection', where dominant families are supported by celibate relatives, allow the best group genes to survive famine. Dominant families gorge while others starve. Equal food sharing results in group extinction leading to group-evolved human traits of social hierarchy, greed, king/queen/God worship. Menstrual hormone cycling parallels aging. FSH and DHT promote ovarian, hair, acne, dental, and arterial follicle development causing ovulation, hair growth, pimples, dental caries, and atherosclerotic soft plaques. Soft plaques contain macrophages and LDL plug; upper plaque layers thin and rupture, releasing LDL plug, causing thrombosis. FSH withdrawal or LH/hCG increases trigger ovulation and thrombosis. Artery narrowing atherosclerotic hard plaques are stress-induced through cortisol-promoted necrotic calcification. LH/hCG-induced apoptosis promotes ovulation and aging-related somatic atrophy. Long-term estradiol stimulates, while progesterone suppresses, gonadotropin levels. Estradiol protects by inhibiting gonadotropin bioactivity and has extracellular antioxidant, but intranuclear free radical, effects. Female X-linked gene mosaicism conserves evolved aging systems. Maternal age factors for chromosomal trisomy suggest menopause prevents human parthenogenesis. Homosexuality and serial killing inhibit genetic contribution by individuals evolutionarily perceived as stressed. Smoking during pregnancy may induce homosexual offspring. Nitric oxide, a free radical, stimulates cGMP, but not cAMP. cGMP likely first evolved as an antioxidant defense to free radicals. Human aging syndromes might reflect human evolution progression. AS#4 affects tissues evolved from plant ancestors, AS#5a - from predators, AS#5b-immune system, and AS#6-sex tissues. (ABSTRACT TRUNCA