Neuromarkers and unconventional biological fluids

Role of the biological active components of human milk on long-term growth and neurodevelopmental outcome

Human Milk is the best option for infant feeding; and for this reason, it should be promoted, protected, and supported. HM is an individual-specific-dynamic biofluid, characterized by an extreme variability in its composition. A wealth of literature has investigated how HM is related to healthy development. An association between HM composition, including nutrients and growth-related hormones as well as other bioactive components, and short-term and long-term infant outcomes could support this statement; however, the evidence is limited. In fact, HM composition is difficult to examine as it is dynamic and changes within a single feed, diurnally, according to stage of lactation and between and within populations. The aim of this review is summarizing only the innovative knowledge on the association between HM composition and long-term outcomes: infant growth and neurodevelopment. In this specific contest, macronutrients and historical biological component with well recognized effect were excluded (i.e. LCPUFA, DHA, iodine). Revised articles have been found in MEDLINE using breast milk-related outcomes, neurodevelopment, infant growth, breast milk-related biological factors, biomarkers, biological active components, and constituents as keywords. Moreover, we focus our search on the latest research results.

Preeclampsia and Its Impact on Human Milk Activin A Concentration

BACKGROUND

It is known that preeclampsia affects lactogenesis. However, data on the effects of this pathology on human milk neurobiomarker composition are not available. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of this gestational pathology on activin A levels, a neurobiomarker known to play an important role in the development and protection of the central nervous system.

METHODS

The women recruited were divided in two different study groups: preeclamptic or normotensive women. All the human milk samples were collected using the same procedure. Activin A was quantified using an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. To investigate the effect of preeclampsia on the activin A concentration in the three lactation phases, a mixed linear model with a unistructural covariance structure, with the mother as the random effect, and fixed effects were performed.

RESULTS

Activin A was detected in all samples. There were no significant differences between preeclamptic and normotensive women. The only significant effect is related to the lactation phase: the difference between colostrum and mature milk (p < 0.01) was significant. In conclusion, these results allow us to affirm that breast milk's beneficial properties are maintained even if preeclampsia occurs.

Early predictors of abnormal MRI patterns in asphyxiated infants: S100B protein urine levels

OBJECTIVES

The early detection and stratification of asphyxiated infants at higher risk for impaired neurodevelopment is challenging. S100B protein is a well-established biomarker of brain damage, but lacks conclusive validation according to the "gold standard" methodology for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) prognostication, i.e. brain MRI. The aim of the present study was to investigate the predictive role of urinary S100B concentrations, assessed in a cohort of HIE infants receiving therapeutic hypothermia (TH), compared to brain MRI.

METHODS

Assessment of urine S100B concentrations was performed by immunoluminometric assay at first void and at 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 48, 72, 96, 108 and 120-h after birth. Neurologic evaluation, routine laboratory parameters, amplitude-integrated electroencephalography, and cerebral ultrasound were performed according to standard protocols. Brain MRI was performed at 7-10 days of life.

RESULTS

Overall, 74 HIE neonates receiving TH were included in the study. S100B correlated, already at first void, with the MRI patterns with higher concentrations in infants with the most severe MRI lesions.

CONCLUSIONS

High S100B urine levels soon after birth constitute trustable predictors of brain injury as confirmed by MRI. Results support the reliability of S100B in clinical daily practice and open the way to its inclusion in the panel of parameters used for the selection of cases suitable for TH treatment.

S100B in cardiac surgery brain monitoring: friend or foe?

Recent advances in perioperative management of adult and pediatric patients requiring open heart surgery (OHS) and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) for cardiac and/or congenital heart diseases repair allowed a significant reduction in the mortality rate. Conversely morbidity rate pattern has a flat trend. Perioperative period is crucial since OHS and CPB are widely accepted as a deliberate hypoxic-ischemic reperfusion damage representing the cost to pay at a time when standard of care monitoring procedures can be silent or unavailable. In this respect, the measurement of neuro-biomarkers (NB), able to detect at early stage perioperative brain damage could be especially useful. In the last decade, among a series of NB, S100B protein has been investigated. After the first promising results, supporting the usefulness of the protein as predictor of short/long term adverse neurological outcome, the protein has been progressively abandoned due to a series of limitations. In the present review we offer an up-dated overview of the main S100B pros and cons in the peri-operative monitoring of adult and pediatric patients.

Lessons learned from proteome analysis of perinatal neurovascular pathologies

INTRODUCTION

Perinatal and pediatric diseases related to neurovascular disorders cause significant problems during life, affecting a population with a long life expectancy. Early diagnosis and assessment of the severity of these diseases are crucial to establish an appropriate neuroprotective treatment. Currently, physical examination, neuroimaging and clinical judgment are the main tools for diagnosis, although these tests have certain limitations. There is growing interest in the potential value of noninvasive biomarkers that can be used to monitor child patients at risk of brain damage, allowing accurate, and reproducible measurements.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes potential biomarkers for the diagnosis of perinatal neurovascular diseases and discusses the possibilities they open for the classification and treatment of neonatal neurovascular diseases.

EXPERT OPINION

Although high rates of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke exist in pediatric populations, most studies have focused on biomarkers of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Inflammatory and neuronal biomarkers such as S-100B and GFAP, in combination with others yet to be discovered, could be considered as part of multiplex panels to diagnose these diseases and potentially for monitoring response to treatments. Ideally, noninvasive biofluids would be the best source for evaluating these biomarkers in proteomic assays in perinatal patients.

Monitoring the effectiveness of hypothermia in perinatal asphyxia infants by urinary S100B levels

Background Perinatal asphyxia is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in neonates: The aim of the present study was to investigate, by means of longitudinal assessment of urinary S100B, the effectiveness of hypothermia, in infants complicated by perinatal asphyxia and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Methods We performed a retrospective case-control study in 108 asphyxiated infants, admitted to nine tertiary departments for neonatal intensive care from January 2004 to July 2017, of whom 54 underwent hypothermia treatment and 54 did not. The concentrations of S100B protein in urine were measured using an immunoluminometric assay at first urination and 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 48, 72, 96, 108 and 120 h after birth. The results were correlated with the achievement of S100B levels within normal ranges at 72 h from hypothermia treatment. Routine laboratory parameters, longitudinal cerebral function monitoring, cerebral ultrasound and neurologic patterns were assessed according to standard protocols. Results Higher S100B concentrations were found in hypothermia-treated infants in both moderate (up to 12 h) and severe (up to 24 h) hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. S100B levels returned to normal ranges starting from 20 h of hypothermia treatment in moderate and from 36 h in severe hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Conclusions The present results offer additional support to the usefulness of longitudinal neuro-biomarkers monitoring in asphyxiated infants treated by hypothermia. The pattern of S100B concentrations during hypothermia supports the need for further investigations aimed at reconsidering the time-window for patient recruitment and treatment, and the optimal duration of the cooling and rewarming phases of the hypothermia procedure.

[Hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in premature newborns]

One of the main causes of cerebral dysfunction in premature newborns is hypoxia. High mortality and lifelong morbidity in these children is a frequent result of neonatal hypoxic brain damage. The article presents some data on the prevalence of neurological diseases that have arisen in the perinatal period, and highlights the key etiological factors leading to hypoxia in both the intranatal and early postnatal periods. The pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic brain lesions in premature infants is described in detail. At the same time, more careful consideration is given to the glutathione system, which protects against lipid peroxidation, the glutamate-calcium cascade, and the excitotoxicity mediated by it, as well as the processes of necrosis and apoptosis of nerve cells. The advantages and disadvantages of modern methods for diagnosing cerebral lesions are noted, and the principles of treatment of these disorders are analyzed.

Point-of-Care Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensor for Stroke Biomarkers NT-proBNP and S100β Using a Functionalized Gold Chip with Specific Antibody

Surface-plasmon-resonance (SPR) is a quantum-electromagnetic phenomenon arising from the interaction of light with free electrons at a metal-dielectric interface. At a specific angle/wavelength of light, the photon's energy is transferred to excite the oscillation of the free electrons on the surface. A change in the refractive-index (RI) may occur, which is influenced by the analyte concentration in the medium in close contact with the metal surface. SPR has been widely used for the detection of gaseous, liquid, or solid samples. In this study, a functionalized specific SPR chip was designed and used in a novel point-of-care SPR module (PhotonicSys SPR H5) for the detection of the stroke biomarkers NT-proBNP and S100β. These biomarkers have proven to be good for stroke diagnosis, with sensitivity and specificity of >85%. Specific detection was done by binding a biomolecular-recognizing antibody onto the Au SPR-chip. Detection was tested in water and plasma samples. NT-proBNP and S100β were detected in a range of concentrations for stroke, from 0.1 ng/mL to 10 ng/mL. The RI of the blank plasma samples was 1.362412, and the lowest concentration tested for both biomarkers showed a prominent shift in the RI signal (0.25 ng/mL NT-proBNP (1.364215) and S100β (1.364024)). The sensor demonstrated a clinically relevant limit-of-detection of less than ng/mL.

Donor Human Milk: Effects of Storage and Heat Treatment on Oxidative Stress Markers

Mother's own milk is the first choice for the feeding and nutrition of preterm and term newborns. When mother's own milk is unavailable or in short supply donor human milk (DM) could represent a solution. Heat treatment and cold storage are common practices in Human Milk Banks (HMBs). Currently, Holder pasteurization process is the recommended heat treatment in all international guidelines. This method is thought to lead to a good compromise between the microbiological safety and nutritional/biological quality of DM. Moreover, storage of refrigerated milk is a common practice in HMBs and in NICUs. Depending on the length and on the type of storage, human milk may lose some important nutritional and functional properties. The available data on oxidative stress markers confirm that pasteurization and refrigeration affected this important elements to variable degrees, even though it is rather difficult to quantify the level of deterioration. Nonetheless, clinical practice demonstrates that many beneficial properties of human milk are preserved, even after cold storage and heat treatment. Future studies should be focused on the evaluation of new pasteurization techniques, in order to achieve a better compromise between biological quality and safety of DM.

Human Milk Adrenomedullin Is Unstable During Cold Storage at 4°C

INTRODUCTION

Under some circumstances human milk (HM) extraction and refrigerated storage may be necessary. Depending on the length and on the type of cold storage, milk may lose some important properties, but current advices on safe HM storage are discordant. Moreover until now no data in literature were present on the effect of prolonged cold storage on biologically active components of the HM such as adrenomedullin (AM). This important peptide is involved in response to hypoxia and inflammation, associated with neovascularization, in several tissues. The aim is to evaluate: (a) the presence of AM in preterm and term HM and (b) the concentration of AM in refrigerated milk at 4°C at 24-hour intervals, up to 96 hours of storage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was repeated four times. Immediately after collection, each HM sample deriving from each mother was divided into two parts as follows: "Pool" line and "Single Mother" line. One part (Pool line) was pooled and then divided into five aliquots. The other part (Single Mother line) was divided into five aliquots. From each line, one aliquot was analyzed within 3 hours, while the others were stored in the refrigerator for 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours, respectively, and then analyzed. AM levels were determined using a specific ELISA test.

RESULTS

AM was detectable in all samples. Its concentration was significantly higher in preterm milk with respect to term milk (p < 0.05). Significant differences were observed during the cold storage: the AM levels decreased steadily during the storage and the remaining concentration at 96 hours is ∼2%.

DISCUSSION

This study provides evidences regarding the presence of AM in HM, regardless of the gestational age. In particular, the refrigeration of fresh HM in controlled conditions significantly affected its bioactivity and nutritional quality related with AM, already at 24 hours.

S100B maternal blood levels are gestational age- and gender-dependent in healthy pregnancies

BACKGROUND

S100B is a well-established biomarker of central nervous system (CNS) development and damage in the perinatal period. Because the fetal CNS induces an overproduction of S100B measurable in the maternal bloodstream we evaluated S100B protein in healthy pregnancies in order to provide a reference curve of the protein in the second and third trimesters and to provide information on CNS development when standard monitoring procedures could be silent or unavailable.

METHODS

Between July 2012 and December 2014 we conducted a prospective study in 1213 healthy pregnancies delivering healthy newborns. Maternal blood samples were collected for standard monitoring procedures and S100B assessment. S100B correlations with selected outcomes (gestational age at sampling, gender of fetus, gestational age and weight at birth, delivery mode) were calculated using multiple forward stepwise regression analysis.

RESULTS

S100B concentrations in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy were found to be gestational age-, gender- and delivery mode-dependent (p<0.05, for all). Multiple forward stepwise regression analysis with S100B as the dependent variable and gestational age at sampling, gender, delivery mode, gestational age and weight at birth as independent variables, showed a significant correlation between S100B and gestational age at sampling (R=0.13; p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings offering a S100B protein reference curve in maternal blood suggest that non-invasive fetal CNS monitoring is becoming feasible and open the way to further research in neuro-biomarker assessment in the maternal bloodstream.

Protein S100B in umbilical cord blood as a potential biomarker of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in asphyxiated newborns

BACKGROUND

Neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a devastating condition resulting from a sustained lack of oxygen during birth. The interest in identifying a relevant biomarker of HIE has thrown into limelight the role of protein S100B as a clinical diagnostic marker of hypoxic brain damage in neonates.

AIMS

To evaluate the diagnostic value of protein S100B, measured in umbilical cord blood immediately after birth, as a useful biomarker in the diagnosis of HIE Sarnat stages II-III as well as a marker for long-term mortality and morbidity.

STUDY DESIGN

Protein S100B was analyzed in cord blood sampled at birth from 13 newborns later diagnosed with stage II-III HIE and compared with 21 healthy controls. S100B concentrations were related to cord artery pH, amplitude-integrated electroencephalography (aEEG), stage of HIE, and death/sequelae up to an age of 6years. Both parametric and non-parametric statistics were used with a two-sided P<0.05 considered significant.

RESULTS

The difference in S100B concentration was marginally statistically significant between HIE cases and controls (P=0.056). Cord blood acidosis (P=0.046), aEEG pattern severity (P=0.030), HIE severity (P=0.027), and condition at 6-year follow-up (healthy/permanent sequelae/death; P=0.027) were all related to an increase in S100B concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

Protein S100B in neonates suffering from HIE stages II-III appeared elevated in umbilical cord blood at birth. The S100B concentrations were positively associated to the severity of disease and the risk of suffering from neurodevelopmental sequelae and even death.

Point-of-Care-Testing in Acute Stroke Management: An Unmet Need Ripe for Technological Harvest

Stroke, the second highest leading cause of death, is caused by an abrupt interruption of blood to the brain. Supply of blood needs to be promptly restored to salvage brain tissues from irreversible neuronal death. Existing assessment of stroke patients is based largely on detailed clinical evaluation that is complemented by neuroimaging methods. However, emerging data point to the potential use of blood-derived biomarkers in aiding clinical decision-making especially in the diagnosis of ischemic stroke, triaging patients for acute reperfusion therapies, and in informing stroke mechanisms and prognosis. The demand for newer techniques to deliver individualized information on-site for incorporation into a time-sensitive work-flow has become greater. In this review, we examine the roles of a portable and easy to use point-of-care-test (POCT) in shortening the time-to-treatment, classifying stroke subtypes and improving patient's outcome. We first examine the conventional stroke management workflow, then highlight situations where a bedside biomarker assessment might aid clinical decision-making. A novel stroke POCT approach is presented, which combines the use of quantitative and multiplex POCT platforms for the detection of specific stroke biomarkers, as well as data-mining tools to drive analytical processes. Further work is needed in the development of POCTs to fulfill an unmet need in acute stroke management.

Electrochemical impedimetric detection of stroke biomarker NT-proBNP using disposable screen-printed gold electrodes

Stroke is the second top leading cause of death globally. It is caused by an abrupt interruption of blood flow to the brain. In that course, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and its derivative N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), neurohormones produced mainly by the heart ventricles in response to excessive stretching of cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells), are proven to be good biomarkers for heart failure diagnosis. Moreover, there is growing clinical interest of the use of NT-proBNP for stroke diagnosis and prognosis because it is significantly associated with cardioembolic stroke and secondary stroke reoccurrence, with sensitivity >90% and specificity >80%. However, in diagnostic settings, there is still a need to address the encountered analytical problems, particularly assay specificity and set up. In this study, a novel approach for NT-proBNP detection is demonstrated using an electrochemical immunoassay method. A label-free impedimetry immunosensor for stroke biomarker was developed using modified disposable screen-printed gold electrodes (SPGE) hosting specific anti-NT-proBNP capture antibody. The performance of our immunosensor was studied in the presence of NT-proBNP in both buffered and mock (porcine) plasma samples. A linear relation between the relative total resistance (ΔRtot) responses and the NT-proBNP concentrations in buffer was observed in a range from 0.1 to 5 ng mL-1 with a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.94656. Overall, the biosensor has demonstrated the capability to quantitate NT-proBNP and differentiate such concentrations in a low concentration range, especially among 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 3 ng mL-1 in plasma samples within 25 min. This range is valuable not only for classifying cardioembolic stroke (higher or equal to 0.5 ng mL-1), but also predicting the risk of secondary stroke reoccurrence (higher than 0.255 ng mL-1). Our biosensor has the potential to be used as an easy-to-use point-of-care test that is both accurate and affordable.

The potentials and limitations of neuro-biomarkers as predictors of outcome in neonates with birth asphyxia

Perinatal asphyxia and its complication, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, are still among the major causes of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Despite accurate standard postnatal monitoring procedures, the post-insult period is crucial because at a time when radiologic pictures are still silent, brain damage may already be at a subclinical stage. Against this background, the measurement of quantitative parameters, such as constituents of nervous tissue, that are able to detect subclinical lesions at a stage when routine brain monitoring procedures are still silent, could be particularly useful. Therefore, in the present review we report the potentials and limitations of biomarkers in predicting outcome in neonates complicated by perinatal asphyxia.

The Effect of Holder Pasteurization on Activin A Levels in Human Milk

INTRODUCTION

There is evidence that mother's own milk is the best nutrient in terms of multiorgan protection and infection prevention. However, when maternal milk is scarce, the solution can be represented by donor milk (DM), which requires specific storage procedures such as Holder Pasteurization (HoP). HoP is not free from side effects since it is widely known that it causes qualitative/quantitative changes in milk composition, particularly in the protein content. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effects of HoP on Activin A, a neurobiomarker known to play an important role in the development and protection of the central nervous system.

METHODS

In 24 mothers who delivered preterm (n = 12) and term (n = 12) healthy newborns, we conducted a pretest/test study where the milk donors acted as their own controls. Each sample was divided into two parts: the first was frozen at -80°C (Group 1); the second was Holder-pasteurized before freezing at -80°C (Group 2). Activin A was quantified using an ELISA test.

RESULTS

Activin A was detected in all samples. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the two groups, also when the analysis was stratified for gestational age at delivery and milk maturation degree (p > 0.05, for both).

CONCLUSION

The present findings on the absence of any side effects of HoP on the milk concentration of Activin A offer additional support to the efficacy of HoP in DM storage. Our data open up to further investigations on neurobiomarkers' assessment in human milk and their preanalytical stability according to storage procedures.

Neurodevelopment and phenotype-modulating functions of S100B protein: a pilot study

The importance of certain neurotrophic proteins found in maternal blood and milk for breastfed infants has remained ambiguous. This study was conducted to present evidence of the impact of an induced deficit of active S100B protein on neonate development. Newborn mice from two groups of mothers, immunized or sham-immunized against S100B, were subjected to various behavioral tests, and the development of their morphological characteristics was recorded from birth until weaning. Morphological problems, including weight gain and fur coating, a delay in the maturation of neurobehavioral systems and a deficit in neuromotor functions, including visual abilities, somato-sensory and posture reactions, muscular strength, locomotion, and fear/orienting processes, were observed in pups of immunized mothers. The S100B protein of external or internal origin in infants may be considered to be a specific factor that determines neuro- and morphological development and a risk-avoidance ('homeward-bent' or fearful) phenotype. The suppression of activity of the S100B protein results in a slower neonatal development and the formation of a risk-tolerant (fearless) phenotype of the offspring. This study thus considers the mechanism of neuroplastic regulation on the extent of sensation-seeking or risk-taking (homeless-like or fearless) and sensation- or risk-avoidance (home-bound or fearful) features in individual phenotypes.

The clinical and diagnostic utility of S100B in preterm newborns

Preterm birth is still the most important cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Follow-up studies showed that the majority of neurological abnormalities during childhood are already present in the first week after birth. In this light, the knowledge of the timing of the insult and/or of the contributing factors is of utmost relevance in order to avoid adverse neurological outcome. Notwithstanding, the considerable advances in perinatal clinical care and monitoring, the early detection of cases at risk for brain damage is still a challenge because, when radiological pictures are still negative, brain damage may be already at a subclinical stage, with symptoms hidden by therapeutic strategies. Thus, it could be very relevant to measure quantitative parameters, such as neuroproteins, able to detect subclinical lesions at a stage when routine brain monitoring procedures are still silent. In the last decade, the assay of the brain-specific protein S100B in different biological fluids proved useful information on brain function and damage in the perinatal period. Therefore, the present study provides an overview of the most recent findings on S100B role as a reliable marker of brain development/damage in preterm high risk fetuses and newborns.

Neurological abnormalities in full-term asphyxiated newborns and salivary S100B testing: the "Cooperative Multitask against Brain Injury of Neonates" (CoMBINe) international study

BACKGROUND

Perinatal asphyxia (PA) is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in newborns: its prognosis depends both on the severity of the asphyxia and on the immediate resuscitation to restore oxygen supply and blood circulation. Therefore, we investigated whether measurement of S100B, a consolidated marker of brain injury, in salivary fluid of PA newborns may constitute a useful tool for the early detection of asphyxia-related brain injury.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study in 292 full-term newborns admitted to our NICUs, of whom 48 suffered PA and 244 healthy controls admitted at our NICUs. Saliva S100B levels measurement longitudinally after birth; routine laboratory variables, neurological patterns, cerebral ultrasound and, magnetic resonance imaging were performed. The primary end-point was the presence of neurological abnormalities at 12-months after birth.

RESULTS

S100B salivary levels were significantly (P<0.001) higher in newborns with PA than in normal infants. When asphyxiated infants were subdivided according to a good (Group A; n = 15) or poor (Group B; n = 33) neurological outcome at 12-months, S100B was significantly higher at all monitoring time-points in Group B than in Group A or controls (P<0.001, for all). A cut-off >3.25 MoM S100B achieved a sensitivity of 100% (CI5-95%: 89.3%-100%) and a specificity of 100% (CI5-95%: 98.6%-100%) as a single marker for predicting the occurrence of abnormal neurological outcome (area under the ROC curve: 1.000; CI5-95%: 0.987-1.0).

CONCLUSIONS

S100B protein measurement in saliva, soon after birth, is a useful tool to identify which asphyxiated infants are at risk of neurological sequelae.

S100B as a marker for brain damage and blood-brain barrier disruption following exercise

BACKGROUND

S100B level in the blood has been used as a marker for brain damage and blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Elevations of S100B levels after exercise have been observed, suggesting that the BBB may be compromised during exercise. However, an increase in S100B levels may be confounded by other variables.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this review was to compile findings on the relationship between S100B and exercise in order to determine if this protein is a valid marker for BBB disruptions during exercise. The secondary objective was to consolidate known factors causing S100B increases that may give rise to inaccurate interpretations of S100B levels.

DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SELECTION

PubMed, Web of Science and ScienceDirect were searched for relevant studies up to January 2013, in which S100B measurements were taken after a bout of exercise. Animal studies were excluded. Variables of interest such as the type of activity, exercise intensities, duration, detection methods, presence and extent of head trauma were examined and compiled.

RESULTS

This review included 23 studies; 15 (65 %) reported S100B increases after exercise, and among these, ten reported S100B increases regardless of intervention, while five reported increases in only some trials but not others. Eight (35 %) studies reported no increases in S100B levels across all trials. Most baseline S100B levels fall below 0.16 μg/L, with an increase in S100B levels of less than 0.07 μg/L following exercise. Factors that are likely to affect S100B levels include exercise intensity, and duration, presence and extent of head trauma. Several other probable factors influencing S100B elevations are muscle breakdown, level of training and oxidative stress, but current findings are still weak and inconclusive.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated S100B levels have been recorded following exercise and are mostly attributed to either an increase in BBB permeability or trauma to the head. However, even in the absence of head trauma, it appears that the BBB may be compromised following exercise, with the severity dependent on exercise intensity.

Serum biomarkers to evaluate the integrity of the neurovascular unit

Biomarkers have the potential to enable the clinicians to screen infants for brain injury, monitor progression of disease, identify injured brain regions, assess efficacy of neuroprotective therapies, and offer hope to identify the timing of the injury, thus shedding light on the potential pathophysiology and the most effective therapy. Currently, clinicians do not routinely use biomarkers to care for neonates with Neonatal Encephalopathy (NE) and brain injury due to prenatal hypoxia-asphyxia. This review will cover potential biomarkers of the neurovascular unit in the setting of NE that (i) can help assess the degree or severity of encephalopathy at birth; (ii) can help monitor progression of disease process and efficacy of neuroprotective therapy; (iii) can help assess neurodevelopmental outcome. These biomarkers will be summarized in two categories: 1) Specific biomarkers targeting the neurovascular unit such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1), S100B, and neuron specific enolase (NSE) and 2) general inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1b (IL-1b), and pNF-H, among others.

Biomarkers of brain injury in the premature infant

The term “encephalopathy of prematurity” encompasses not only the acute brain injury [such as intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH)] but also complex disturbance on the infant’s subsequent brain development. In premature infants, the most frequent recognized source of brain injury is IVH and periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). Furthermore 20–25% infants with birth weigh less than 1,500 g will have IVH and that proportion increases to 45% if the birth weight is less than 500–750 g. In addition, nearly 60% of very low birth weight newborns will have hypoxic-ischemic injury. Therefore permanent lifetime neurodevelopmental disabilities are frequent in premature infants. Innovative approach to prevent or decrease brain injury in preterm infants requires discovery of biomarkers able to discriminate infants at risk for injury, monitor the progression of the injury, and assess efficacy of neuroprotective clinical trials. In this article, we will review biomarkers studied in premature infants with IVH, Post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilation (PHVD), and PVL including: S100b, Activin A, erythropoietin, chemokine CCL 18, GFAP, and NFL will also be examined. Some of the most promising biomarkers for IVH are S100β and Activin. The concentrations of TGF-β1, MMP-9, and PAI-1 in cerebrospinal fluid could be used to discriminate patients that will require shunt after PHVD. Neonatal brain injury is frequent in premature infants admitted to the neonatal intensive care and we hope to contribute to the awareness and interest in clinical validation of established as well as novel neonatal brain injury biomarkers.

Biomarkers of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in newborns

As neonatal intensive care has evolved, the focus has shifted from improving mortality alone to an effort to improve both mortality and morbidity. The most frequent source of neonatal brain injury occurs as a result of hypoxic-ischemic injury. Hypoxic-ischemic injury occurs in about 2 of 1,000 full-term infants and severe injured infants will have lifetime disabilities and neurodevelopmental delays. Most recently, remarkable efforts toward neuroprotection have been started with the advent of therapeutic hypothermia and a key step in the evolution of neonatal neuroprotection is the discovery of biomarkers that enable the clinician-scientist to screen infants for brain injury, monitor progression of disease, identify injured brain regions, and assess efficacy of neuroprotective clinical trials. Lastly, biomarkers offer great hope identifying when an injury occurred shedding light on the potential pathophysiology and the most effective therapy. In this article, we will review biomarkers of HIE including S100B, neuron specific enolase, umbilical cord IL-6, CK-BB, GFAP, myelin basic protein, UCHL-1, and pNF-H. We hope to contribute to the awareness, validation, and clinical use of established as well as novel neonatal brain injury biomarkers.

Adrenomedullin alterations related to cardiopulmonary bypass in infants with low cardiac output syndrome

BACKGROUND

Low cardiac output syndrome (LCOS) remains a major perioperative complications in infants subjected to open-heart surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). The present study investigated whether perioperative blood assessment of a potent vasoactive peptide namely adrenomedullin (AM) can predict the risk of LCOS.

METHODS

We measured AM levels in 48 patients (LCOS: n = 9; controls: n = 39) undergone to open-heart surgery with CPB at five predetermined time points before, during and after the surgery. Clinical, laboratory and perioperative data were analyzed by a multiple logistic regression model.

RESULTS

AM significantly decreased (p < 0.01) during and after the surgical procedure exhibiting a dip at the end of the CPB. Multivariable analysis demonstrated significant correlations among LCOS, AM measured at the end of CPB (p < 0.001), and cooling duration (p < 0.05). AM at 27 pg/L cutoff achieved a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 64.1%, while cooling at 11-min cutoff combined a sensitivity of 55.6% and a specificity of 92.3% for LCOS prediction.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that AM can constitute, alone or combined with standard parameters, a promising predictor of LCOS in infants subjected to open-heart surgery with CPB.

Arterial cord blood lutein levels in preterm and term healthy newborns are sex and gestational age dependent

OBJECTIVE

Lutein is an antioxidant carotenoid exerting a key role in eye health, but no reference curve in the perinatal period is available.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We conducted a prospective study on the distribution of lutein and its metabolite 3'-oxolutein in arterial cord blood of preterm (n=40) and term (n=76) newborns according to gestational age, sex and delivery modalities.

RESULTS

Lutein and 3'-oxolutein concentrations peaked at the beginning of third trimester (P<0.01, for both) being higher in the preterm than in term group. From 36 weeks onwards, lutein and 3'-oxolutein levels progressively decreased reaching the lowest levels at term between 41 and 42 weeks (P<0.01, for both). Lutein and 3'-oxolutein significantly (P<0.01, for all) correlated with each other (R=0.33) and with gestational age at sampling (R=0.31 and R=0.38 for lutein and 3-oxolutein, respectively) (P<0.001, for all). Indeed, lutein and 3'-oxolutein concentrations were significantly higher (P<0.05, for all) in female than in male and significantly lower (P<0.01, for both) in newborns delivered by caesarean section when compared to vaginal delivery.

CONCLUSIONS

Since macula densa and retina are sites of lutein accumulation, the present findings open-up a new cue on the potential role of lutein in the prevention of the retinopathy of prematurity.

Human milk and formulae: neurotrophic and new biological factors

Mother milk is widely accepted to be a unique product believed to contain biological factors involved in the regulation of newborn optimal growth including brain when compared to milk-formula milks. In this setting, there is growing evidence that in milk-formula neuro-oxidative stress biomarkers, neurotrophic proteins and calcium binding proteins, known to be involved in a cascade of events leading to brain, cardiac and vascular development/damage, are to date lacking or at a lower concentration than breast milk. Therefore, this review is aimed at offering additional insights to the role in human milk of some selected biomarkers such as: i) neurotrophic factors such as Activin A; ii) Calcium binding protein such as S100B and, iii) heat shock protein known to be involved in oxidative stress response (namely hemeoxygenase-1, HO-1 or Heat shock Protein 32, HSP32).