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Clothier RH, Atkinson KA, Garle MJ, Ward RK, Willshaw A. The Development and Evaluation of In Vitro Tests by the FRAME Alternatives Laboratory. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299502300111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This review outlines the work which has been conducted in the FRAME Alternatives Laboratory during the first ten years of the FRAME Research Programme. A number of in vitro tests, including the kenacid blue, neutral red release and fluorescein leakage assay methods, have been evaluated and have subsequently been included in validation schemes organised by the US Soap and Detergent Association, the US Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association, the European Commission and the European Cosmetic, Toiletry and Perfumery Association, as well as in the Scandinavian multicentre evaluation of in vitro cytotoxicity testing scheme. More recently, research has been undertaken in the areas of phototoxicity, immunotoxicity, dermal toxicity and intercellular communication, in addition to investigations into fundamental mechanisms of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard H. Clothier
- FRAME Alternatives Laboratory, Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Karen A. Atkinson
- FRAME Alternatives Laboratory, Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Michael J. Garle
- FRAME Alternatives Laboratory, Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Rachel K. Ward
- FRAME Alternatives Laboratory, Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Angela Willshaw
- FRAME Alternatives Laboratory, Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
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Ekwall B, Bondesson I, Hellberg S, Högberg J, Romert L, Stenberg K, Walum E. Validation of In Vitro Cytotoxicity Tests — Past and Present Strategies. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299101900215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, conventional toxicity testing in animals has been reinforced by in vitro methods. As a result, toxicity testing in some sectors has become more effective and at the same time more ethical. This trend is probably only at its beginning, as many of the newly-developed methods have not yet won general acceptance as a basis for the large-scale replacement and reduction of animal experimentation. What limits the wider use of these methods is validation, i.e. the evaluation of their reliability and relevance. The present paper is a short review of the validation efforts made hitherto, including projects being planned and under discussion. Our own MEIC approach is compared with other strategies. Finally, our opinion on the effectiveness of one large consensus project relative to several different smaller validation programmes is expressed — we advocate the latter strategy, because it will save time and reduce costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Ekwall
- Department of Toxicology, Biomedical Center, University of Uppsala, Box 594, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Inger Bondesson
- Swedish Poison Information Center, Karolinska Hospital, Box 60500, S-104 01 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sven Hellberg
- Research Group for Chemometrics, Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Umeå, S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Johan Högberg
- National Institute of Occupational Health, Ekelundsvägen 16, S-171 63 Solna, Sweden
| | - Lennart Romert
- Department of Genetic and Cellular Toxicology, Wallenberg Laboratory, University of Stockholm, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kjell Stenberg
- Department of Medical Radiobiology, Karolinska Hospital, S-104 01 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erik Walum
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neurotoxicology, University of Stockholm, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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Christian MS, Diener RM. Soaps and Detergents: Alternatives to Animal Eye Irritation Tests. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.3109/10915819609008705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
An extensive computer search was conducted, and a comprehensive overview of the current status of alternatives to animal eye irritation tests was obtained. A search of Medline and Toxline databases (1988 to present) was supplemented with references from sources regarding in vitro eye irritation. Particular attention was paid to soap and detergent products and related ingredients. Eighty-five references are included in the review; the in vitro assays are categorized, and their predictive values for assessing acute ocular irritation are evaluated and compared with the Draize rabbit eye irritation assay and with each other. The present review shows that the increased activity of scientists from academia, industry, and regulatory agencies has resulted in substantial progress in developing alternative in vitro procedures and that a number of large, interlaboratory evaluations and international workshops have assisted in the selection process. However, none of these methodologies has obtained acceptance for regulatory classification purposes. Conclusions drawn from this review include that (a) no single in vitro assay is considered capable of replacing the Draize eye irritation test; (b) the chorioallantoic membrane vascular assay (CAMVA) or the hen egg test-chorio-allantoic membrane test (HET-CAM), the chicken or bovine enucleated eye test, the neutral red and plasminogen activation assays for cytotoxicity, and the silicon microphysiometer appear to have the greatest potential as screening tools for eye irritation; and (c) choosing a specific assay or series of assays will depend on the type of agent tested and the impact of false-negative or false-positive results. New assays will continue to be developed and should be included in future evaluations, when sufficient data are available.
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Keith AB, Prospo JD, Demetrulias J, Driedger A, John FG, Grochoski G, Kong B, McCormick WC, North-Root H, Michael GR, Richard IS. The sda alternatives program: comparison ofIn VitroData with draize test data. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569528909051487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Neumann DA. Symposium Proceedings: Replacing the Draize Eye Irritation Test: Scientific Background and Research NeedsTechnical Committee on Alternatives to Animal Testing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569529609048877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Bagley D, Booman KA, Bruner LH, Casterton PL, Demetrulias J, Heinze JE, Innis JD, McCormick WC, Neun DJ, Rothenstein AS, Sedlak RI. The SDA Alternatives Program Phase III: Comparison of in Vitro Data with Animal Eye Irritation Data on Solvents, Surfactants, Oxidizing Agents, and Prototype Cleaning Products. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569529409037519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Gay RJ, Swiderek M, Nelson D, Stephens TJ. The Living Dermal Equivalent as an In Vitro Model for Predicting Ocular Irritation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569529209042592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Neun DJ. Effects of Alkalinity on the Eye Irritation Potential of Solutions Prepared at a Single pH. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569529309053635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Interlaboratory validation of the in vitro eye irritation tests for cosmetic ingredients. (1) Overview of the validation study and Draize scores for the evaluation of the tests. Toxicol In Vitro 1999; 13:73-98. [DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(98)00064-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/1998] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Espersen R, Olsen P, Nicolaisen G, Jensen B, Rasmussen E. Assessment of recovery from ocular irritancy using a human tissue equivalent model. Toxicol In Vitro 1997; 11:81-8. [DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(97)00001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/1996] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Fentem J, Prinsen M, Spielmann H, Walum E, Botham P. Validation—Lessons learned from practical experience. Toxicol In Vitro 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(95)00086-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Evaluation of the bovine corneal opacity-permeability assay as an in vitro alternative to the Draize eye irritation test. Toxicol In Vitro 1993; 7:471-6. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(93)90049-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Hagino S, Itagaki H, Kato S, Kobayashi T. Further evaluation of the quantitative chorioallantoic membrane test using trypan blue stain to predict the eye irritancy of chemicals. Toxicol In Vitro 1993; 7:35-9. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(93)90110-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/1992] [Revised: 08/10/1992] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Grant RL, Yao C, Gabaldon D, Acosta D. Evaluation of surfactant cytotoxicity potential by primary cultures of ocular tissues: I. Characterization of rabbit corneal epithelial cells and initial injury and delayed toxicity studies. Toxicology 1992; 76:153-76. [PMID: 1281345 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(92)90162-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This investigation was undertaken to develop cytotoxicity assay systems using primary cultures of rabbit corneal epithelial cells as an experimental model to evaluate oculotoxic agents and the ability of these in vitro assay systems to predict irritancy potential and delayed toxicity. We have characterized the epithelial nature of the cultures by identifying keratins with antikeratin antibodies (AE1/AE3) and by demonstrating metabolic enzymes important to the integrity of the cells: lactate dehydrogenase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and aldolase. Eight surfactants were compared and ranked according to their cytotoxic potential. We evaluated cytotoxicity by measuring leakage of the cytosolic enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase, into the medium, by making morphological observations and by assessing lysosomal neutral red uptake and mitochondrial 3-(4,5-dimethythiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction. The cells were treated for 1 h with the surfactants and the possibility of delayed toxicity was evaluated 24 h after removal of the surfactant. The cytotoxicity of the different types of surfactants as shown by all the tests was cationic > anionic = amphoteric > non-ionic. Triton X-100, a non-ionic surfactant but a severe irritant, had a ranking similar to anionic surfactants. The in vitro rankings corresponded well to reported in vivo Draize rabbit eye test data. The 24-h test for lactate dehydrogenase leakage showed that mild and non-irritating surfactants did not demonstrate any subsequent damage after a 1-h exposure, but the extreme and severe surfactants continued to show further damage after the 1-h exposure. These in vitro findings were similar to reported in vivo results. The neutral red and MTT tests did not adequately predict the prolonged toxicity of the more irritating surfactants, as was demonstrated by the lactate dehydrogenase leakage test. We conclude that in vitro cytotoxicity assays using primary cultures of rabbit corneal epithelial cells may be used to rank the cytotoxic potential of surfactants, but only the lactate dehydrogenase leakage test was able to assess prolonged cell injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Grant
- College of Pharmacy, University of Texas, Austin 78712
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BALLS M. For beauty lives with kindness - some thoughts on cosmetics testing and safety assessment. Int J Cosmet Sci 1992; 14:199-227. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2494.1992.tb00055.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gay R, Swiderek M, Nelson D, Ernesti A. The living skin equivalent as a model in vitro for ranking the toxic potential of dermal irritants. Toxicol In Vitro 1992; 6:303-15. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(92)90020-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/1991] [Revised: 02/05/1992] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Gettings SD. The Current Status of In Vitro Test Validation (Evaluation) in the United States. Altern Lab Anim 1991. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299101900407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D. Gettings
- The Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association, Suite 300, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036, USA
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Triglia D, Braa SS, Yonan C, Naughton GK. In vitro toxicity of various classes of test agents using the neutral red assay on a human three-dimensional physiologic skin model. IN VITRO CELLULAR & DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY : JOURNAL OF THE TISSUE CULTURE ASSOCIATION 1991; 27A:239-44. [PMID: 2033023 DOI: 10.1007/bf02630923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A new three-dimensional human skin model consisting of several layers of actively dividing and metabolically active human neonatal foreskin-derived fibroblasts and epidermal keratinocytes grown on nylon mesh has been used to assess the in vitro toxicity of test agents from various classes. Utilizing a slight modification of the published neutral red viability assay for endpoint determination, we have assayed and obtained dose-dependent toxicity curves for test agents from the following classes: detergents (n = 15), alcohols (n = 5), metal chlorides (n = 10), perfumes and colognes (n = 5), shampoos (n = 4), conditioners (n = 3), moisturizers (n = 3), pesticides (n = 3), and antimicrobial preservatives (n = 4). Limited comparisons to in vivo ocular irritancy data with alcohols and detergents are encouraging. We have demonstrated the utility of this metabolically active dermal substrate containing naturally secreted collagen and other extracellular matrix proteins along with the neutral red viability assay for assessing the toxicity of a number of test agents from a variety of different classes with broad industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Triglia
- Marrow-Tech, Inc., La Jolla, California 92037
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Hagino S, Itagaki H, Kato S, Kobayashi T, Tanaka M. Quantitative evaluation to predict the eye irritancy of chemicals: Modification of chorioallantoic membrane test by using trypan blue. Toxicol In Vitro 1991; 5:301-4. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(91)90006-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/1990] [Revised: 01/14/1991] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Dierickx PJ, Gordon VC. The EYTEX™ System and the Neutral Red Uptake Inhibition Assay in Cultured Hep G2 Cells as Alternative Methods for In Vivo Eye Irritation Following the EEC Protocol. Altern Lab Anim 1990. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299001700406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The neutral red uptake inhibition assay and the EYTEX™ system were investigated as alternative methods for the assessment of eye irritation, determined according to the EEC protocol. The 17 test chemicals used were mainly organic solvents. The xenobiotics were applied to Hep G2 cells for 24 hours at different concentrations. Neutral red uptake inhibition was then measured. The results are expressed as the NI50 value, which is the concentration of test compound required to induce a 50% reduction in neutral red uptake. The same chemicals were also tested as coded samples by the EYTEX™ test according to the manufacturer's directions. A nearly identical quantitative correlation was found for both in vitro methods with corneal opacity scores: r = 0.84 for EYTEX™ scores and r = 0.83 for log NI50, expressed in μg/ml. Whilst these correlations are certainly not perfect, it is clear that both in vitro methods can be used as valuable prescreening methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Dierickx
- Instituut voor Hygiene en Epidemiologic, Wytsmanstraat 14, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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Abstract
The developments and attitudes towards in vitro testing since the first major workshop on irritation testing five years ago (Reinhardt et al., 1985) are summarized. Many test systems have been described and an increasing number of compounds tested. However, the in vivo data basis used for comparison is still heterogeneous and a proper analysis of most in vivo/in vitro correlations is difficult. Some progress has been achieved with various controlled validation programmes on a national and international level, all of which have not been completed. In order to improve this slow progress the following measures are proposed: (1) expectations for a uniform test need to be discouraged when heterogeneous chemical actions may occur, and rigid test guidelines have to be replaced by flexible ones (differentiated approach); (2) many practical small steps need to be taken rather than one theoretical large step, that is by accepting simple in vitro tests for restricted groups of chemicals such as severe irritants (adaptive approach); and (3) the threshold for acceptance of in vitro tests needs to be lowered by regulatory bodies and routine laboratories (optimistic approach).
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Reinhardt
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Cell Lab, Behavioral Biology, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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Reader S, Blackwell V, O'Hara R, Clothier R, Griffin G, Balls M. Neutral red release from pre-loaded cells as an in vitro approach to testing for eye irritancy potential. Toxicol In Vitro 1990; 4:264-6. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(90)90060-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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