A medicinal plant extract of Scutellaria Baicalensis and Acacia catechu reduced LPS-stimulated gene expression in immune cells: a comprehensive genomic study using QPCR, ELISA, and microarray

A comprehensive review of Shengdeng in Tibetan medicine: textual research, herbal and botanical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology

"Shengdeng", a group of Tibetan medicines with diverse biological origins, has long been utilized in Tibet for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. It showcases remarkable efficacy in alleviating rheumatism, reducing swelling, and relieving pain. This study aimed to clarify the plant species used as "Shengdeng" and summarize their botanical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology to promote its utilization and development. "Shengdeng" is derived from a remarkable collection of 14 plant species belonging to six distinct families. Extensive phytochemical investigations have led to the identification of 355 chemical constituents within "Shengdeng". Pharmacological studies conducted on "Shengdeng" have revealed a wide range of beneficial properties, including antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic activities. Notably, flavonoids and triterpenoids emerge as the predominant groups among these constituents, contributing to the therapeutic potential and diverse applications of "Shengdeng". The present review provides a concise summary of the recent advancements in textual research concerning the herbal and botanical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of "Shengdeng". It is crucial to note that future research on "Shengdeng" should prioritize the analysis of its active ingredients and the establishment of rigorous quality standards. These aspects are essential for ensuring consistency, efficacy, and safety in its clinical application.

A Standardized Botanical Composition Mitigated Acute Inflammatory Lung Injury and Reduced Mortality through Extracellular HMGB1 Reduction

HMGB1 is a key late inflammatory mediator upregulated during air-pollution-induced oxidative stress. Extracellular HMGB1 accumulation in the airways and lungs plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung injury. Decreasing extracellular HMBG1 levels may restore innate immune cell functions to protect the lungs from harmful injuries. Current therapies for air-pollution-induced respiratory problems are inadequate. Dietary antioxidants from natural sources could serve as a frontline defense against air-pollution-induced oxidative stress and lung damage. Here, a standardized botanical antioxidant composition from Scutellaria baicalensis and Acacia catechu was evaluated for its efficacy in attenuating acute inflammatory lung injury and sepsis. Murine models of disorders, including hyperoxia-exposed, bacterial-challenged acute lung injury, LPS-induced sepsis, and LPS-induced acute inflammatory lung injury models were utilized. The effect of the botanical composition on phagocytic activity and HMGB1 release was assessed using hyperoxia-stressed cultured macrophages. Analyses, such as hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining for lung tissue damage evaluation, ELISA for inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, Western blot analysis for proteins, including extracellular HMGB1, and bacterial counts in the lungs and airways, were performed. Statistically significant decreases in mortality (50%), proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) and chemokines (CINC-3) in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and increased bacterial clearance from airways and lungs; reduced airway total protein, and decreased extracellular HMGB1 were observed in in vivo studies. A statistically significant 75.9% reduction in the level of extracellular HMGB1 and an increase in phagocytosis were observed in cultured macrophages. The compilations of data in this report strongly suggest that the botanical composition could be indicated for oxidative-stress-induced lung damage protection, possibly through attenuation of increased extracellular HMGB1 accumulation.

Role of Acacia catechu and Scutellaria baicalensis in Enhancing Immune Function Following Influenza Vaccination of Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Triple-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to examine the role of an Acacia catechu and Scutellaria baicalensis formulation, UP446, on supporting immune function in response to influenza vaccination.

METHODS

A randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study consisted of a 56-day intervention period with a 28-day pre-vaccination period, an influenza vaccination on Day 28 and 28-day post-vaccination period. Fifty healthy adults 40-80 years of age who had not received their flu vaccine were randomized to either UP446 or Placebo. At baseline, Days 28 and 56, immune and oxidative stress markers were measured in blood and a quality of life questionnaire was administered. Participants completed the Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS)-24 daily.

RESULTS

In the post-vaccination period, total IgA and IgG levels increased in participants supplemented with UP446 vs. those on Placebo (p ≤ 0.026). As well, influenza B-specific IgG increased 19.4% from Day 28 to 56 and 11.6% from baseline at Day 56 (p ≤ 0.0075). Serum glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was increased in the pre-vaccination period and from baseline at Day 56 with UP446 supplementation (p ≤ 0.0270).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest a 56-day supplementation with UP446 was beneficial in mounting a robust humoral response following vaccination. Increasing GSH-Px in the pre-vaccination period may help improve antioxidant functions and potentially mitigate the oxidative stress induced following vaccination.

A Comprehensive Review on the Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Activities of Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd

With the emergence of epidemics, pandemics, and infectious diseases, several research activities have been carried out on natural products to tackle them. As there are structural diversities in natural products, researchers are focused on exploring them for treatment and/or management of various infections and/or diseases. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. belonging to the order Fabales and family Fabaceae shows a wide range of pharmacological functions in the management of diseases in humankind. This review was carried out to gather and provide information about the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of A. catechu through the literature survey of scientific articles. On preliminary assessments, A. catechu is demonstrated as a significant wellspring of bioactive compounds with a wide range of biological and pharmaceutical applications such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and so on. Although the metabolites from the plant are reported with diverse pharmacological applications, there is little information in regards to toxicity and clinical trials on bioactive compounds of this plant. Further research on diverse bioactive compounds from the plant is required to develop them as a successful potent drug.

Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Cannabidiol Alone and in Combination with Standardized Bioflavonoid Composition

Symptom-alleviating therapies for osteoarthritis (OA) management are inadequate. Long-term application of first-line treatments, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, is limited due to associated side effects. We believe that a combination of traditionally used botanical extracts, which have diverse active components that target multiple inflammatory pathways, may provide a safe and efficacious alternative to address the multifactorial nature of OA. Recently, cannabidiol (CBD), the major nonpsychoactive component of the hemp plant, has gained renewed global attention for its pharmacological actions. It has shown promise in reducing pain and inflammation in preclinical models of arthritis. In this study, widely employed inflammatory and noninflammatory animal pain models, such as the hot plate test, visceral pain model (writhing test), and carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model, were utilized to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of CBD alone and in combination with standardized bioflavonoid compositions. CBD was tested at 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg orally and at 5% topically. Administered alone, CBD produced dose-correlated, statistically significant pain inhibition in all the models. Enhanced performance in pain and inflammation reduction was observed when CBD was orally administered in complex with the bioflavonoid compositions. Data from this study show that for clinically meaningful efficacy against OA, CBD may have to be delivered in higher dosage or formulated with other medicinal plants with similar activities.

Protective Effect of UP446 on Ligature-Induced Periodontitis in Beagle Dogs

Periodontal disease is an inflammatory disease of the gum caused by a formation of a plaque that triggers immune responses and inflammation leading to the destruction of tissues surrounding and supporting the teeth. Chronic usage of synthetic chemicals and antibiotics is limited by undesired adverse events to the host. A botanical composition (UP446), which consists primarily of bioflavonoids such as baicalin from roots of Scutellaria baicalensis and catechins from heartwoods of Acacia catechu, was evaluated for its effect on ligature-induced periodontal disease in beagle dogs. Disease model was induced in 20 male and female dogs. After a 12-week induction of periodontitis, animals were assigned to a placebo, positive control (doxycycline), and two treatment groups consisting of five animals each. The placebo group was only administrated to normal dog chow (25 g/kg/day). In the doxycycline treatment group, animals were fed a normal diet (25 g/kg/day) and doxycycline (5 mg/kg) was orally administrated every day. Treatment of UP446 was done by feeding the regular diet formulated with 0.1% and 0.2% of UP446 by weight. Clinical indices such as plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), clinical attachment level (CAL), probing pocket depth (PPD), and bleeding on probing (BoP) were measured every two weeks for 12 weeks. UP446 administered to beagle dogs for 12 weeks at 0.1% and 0.2% resulted in statistically significant reductions in gingivitis, pocket depth, loss of attachment, and gum bleeding. UP446 could potentially be used alone or as an adjunct with other oral hygiene preparations for periodontal disease in both human and companion animals.

Nutraceutical Supplements in the Management and Prevention of Osteoarthritis

Nutraceuticals are dietary compounds which have a role in the balance of anabolic and catabolic signals in joints. Their regulatory function on homeostasis of cartilage metabolism nutraceuticals is increasingly considered for the management and, above all, the prevention of osteoarthritis (OA). OA is a degenerative disease characterized by cartilage and synovium inflammation that can cause joint stiffness, swelling, pain, and loss of mobility. It is a multifactorial disease and, due to the great percentage of people suffering from it and the general increase in life expectancy, OA is considered as one of the most significant causes of disability in the world. OA impairs the structural integrity of articular cartilage that greatly depends on a balance between the anabolic and catabolic processes which occur in chondrocytes and synovial fluid of the joints, therefore the integration with nutraceutical compounds in diet increases the treatment options for patients with established OA beyond traditional rehabilitation, medications, and surgical strategies. In our review, with respect to the current literature, we highlight some of many existing nutraceutical compounds that could be used as integrators in a daily diet thanks to their easy availability, such as in olive oil, fish oil, and botanical extracts used as non-pharmacologic treatment.

Anti-inflammatory and in-vitro antibacterial activities of Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula Qingdaisan

BACKGROUND

Qingdaisan (Formulated Indigo powder, QDS) are widely used for treatment of aphtha, sore throat and bleeding gums in China. The aim of the study is to evaluate the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and dental ulcer therapeutic effects of QDS.

METHODS

Dimethylbenzene-induced ear edema test and cotton pellet-induced granuloma test were used to evaluate anti-inflammatory activities of QDS on acute and chronic inflammatory. The healing time and local pathologic changes were used to assess the therapeutic effects of QDS on dental ulcer. The antibacterial activities of each component and the whole formulation of QDS were determined by agar well diffusion assay. High-dose and low-dose QDS were tested in this experiment and Gui Lin Watermelon Frost Powder (GLWFP) was used as positive control.

RESULTS

Oral treatment with QDS significantly accelerated the healing of ulcerative lesions induced by phenol injury. The dental ulcers of high-dose QDS group were all healed within 6 days. It was shorter than those of low-dose QDS group and GLWFP group. Less quantity of inflammatory cells and plenty fibroblasts were observed in pathological section of QDS groups. QDS also exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity both in acute and chronic animal models. Although some of the components exhibited antibacterial activities, the whole formulation of QDS didn't show any significant antibacterial activity in vitro.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that QDS has obviously anti-inflammatory activity for both acute and chronic inflammatory, also has a remarkable effect for healing dental ulcer caused by phenol. QDS didn't have antibacterial activity to selected strains in vitro.

Clinical and Preclinical Cognitive Function Improvement after Oral Treatment of a Botanical Composition Composed of Extracts from Scutellaria baicalensis and Acacia catechu

Dementia and cognitive impairment have become the major concerns worldwide due to a significantly aging population, increasing life span and lack of effective pharmacotherapy. In light of limited pharmaceutical drug choices and the socioeconomic implications of these conditions, the search for safe and effective alternatives from natural sources has gained many attractions within the medical food and dietary supplement industry. Two polyphenol extracts derived from roots of Scutellaria baicalensis and heartwoods of Acacia catechu containing free-B-ring flavonoids and flavans, respectively, were combined into a proprietary blend called UP326. A similar bioflavonoid composition, UP446, has been reported with modulation of pathways related to systemic inflammation. To test the effect of UP326 on memory and learning, a radial arm water maze (RAWM) and contextual fear conditioning (CF) were utilized in aged F344 rats fed with UP326 at doses of 3, 7, and 34 mg/kg for 11 weeks. The 7 and 34 mg/kg dosage groups had significantly fewer errors than aged vehicle control animals and their performance was equivalent to young animal controls. In a separate human clinical trial, test subjects orally given 300 mg of UP326 BID for 30 days showed marked improvement in speed and accuracy of processing complex information in computer tasks and reduced their standard deviation of performance compared to baseline and the placebo group. This data suggest that UP326 may help maintain memory, sustain speed of processing, and reduce the number or memory errors as we age.

Medical Plant Extracts for Treating Knee Osteoarthritis: a Snapshot of Recent Clinical Trials and Their Biological Background

In light of the growing global health problem associated with osteoarthritis, herbal remedies have become an important research focus in the scientific and medical community, and numerous studies have been published to identify their biological effects and mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. This review is a snapshot of the most recent clinical trials on the efficacy of medical plant extracts in knee osteoarthritis patients, and provides relevant background information on the biological mechanisms that may underlie the clinical observations. Therefore, we performed a PubMed literature survey and discussed a selection of clinical trials in the field, with special attention being drawn to the design and outcome measures of the studies. We further spotlighted on issues relating to the efficacy and safety of the plant extracts and discussed major challenges for upcoming studies in the field, which include the need for rigorously designed in vivo and in vitro studies, as well as the elucidation of potential additive effects and structure-modifying activities beyond symptom relief.

Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, and Chemoprotective Properties of Acacia catechu Heartwood Extracts

Aqueous extracts of Acacia catechu heartwood are rich source of catechin and epicatechin (gallic acid derivatives), with smaller amounts of flavonoids. Extracts have also been prepared with ethyl acetate, ethanol, and methanol, and the properties of these extracts have been studied and are reviewed. Potent antioxidant activity has been well established in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This antioxidant activity is believed to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory, tissue protectant, antineoplastic, and analgesic activities that have been demonstrated and clearly established in animal and cell culture systems. Furthermore, antihyperglycemic, antidiarrheal, antinociceptive, and antipyretic activities have been demonstrated in animal studies. No adverse effects have been observed in animal or human studies or in cell culture systems. In spite of the fact that Acacia products have been used for many years and the general safety of catechins and epicatechins is well documented, few human studies have ever been conducted on the efficacy or safety of A. catechu heartwood extracts. Several studies have shown that a two-ingredient combination product containing A. catechu extract exhibited no adverse effects when administered daily for up to 12 weeks while exhibiting significant anti-inflammatory activity in subjects with osteoarthritis of the knee. There is a need for additional human clinical studies with regard to efficacy and safety.

A survey of chinese medicinal herbal treatment for chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis

Oral mucositis is one of the common side effects of chemotherapy treatment with potentially severe implications. Despite several treatment approaches by conventional and complementary western medicine, the therapeutic outcome is often not satisfactory. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) offers empirical herbal formulas for the treatment of oral ulceration which are used in adaptation to chemotherapy-induced mucositis. While standard concepts for TCM treatment do not exist and acceptance by conventional oncologists is still low, we conducted a review to examine the evidence of Chinese herbal treatment in oral mucositis. Eighteen relevant studies on 4 single herbs, 2 combinations of 2 herbs, and 11 multiherbal prescriptions involving 3 or more compounds were included. Corresponding molecular mechanisms were investigated. The knowledge about detailed herbal mechanisms, especially in multi-herbal prescriptions is still limited. The quality of clinical trials needs further improvement. Meta-analysis on the existent database is not possible but molecular findings on Chinese medicinal herbs indicate that further research is still promising for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis.

Extracts from Acacia catechu suppress HIV-1 replication by inhibiting the activities of the viral protease and Tat

Background

Acacia catechu (Mimosa family) stem bark extracts have been used traditionally as a dietary supplement as well as a folk medicine given its reported anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti-tumor activities. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the anti-HIV-1 activity of the extracts from stem bark of A. catechu.

Methods

The aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of A. catechu stem bark were prepared and 50% ethanolic extract was further fractioned by successively partitioning with petroleum ether, chloroform and n-butanol. All the extracts and fractions were evaluated for cytotoxicity and anti-HIV-1 activity using different in vitro assays. The active n-butanol fraction was evaluated for its inhibition against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, integrase, protease, pro-viral genome integration and viral Tat protein mediated transactivation. The effect of n-butanol fraction on the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion in Vk2/E6E7 cells and transepithelial resistance in Caco-2 and HEC-1A cells was investigated.

Results

The aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of A. catechu showed IC₅₀ values of 1.8 ± 0.18 μg/ml and 3.6 ± 0.31 μg/ml, respectively in cell-free virus based assay using TZM-bl cells and HIV-1_NL4.3 (X-4 tropic). In the above assay, n-butanol fraction exhibited anti-HIV-1 activity with an IC₅₀ of 1.7 ± 0.12 μg/ml. The n-butanol fraction showed a dose-dependent inhibition against HIV-1_NL4.3 infection of the peripheral blood lymphocytes and against HIV-1_BaL(R-5-tropic) as well as two different primary viral isolates of HIV-1 infection of TZM-bl cells. The n-butanol fraction demonstrates a potent inhibitory activity against the viral protease (IC₅₀ = 12.9 μg/ml), but not reverse transcriptase or integrase. Further, in Alu-PCR no effect on viral integration was observed. The n-butanol fraction interfered with the Tat-mediated Long Terminal Repeat transactivation in TZM-bl cells, mRNA quantitation (qRT-PCR) and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). The n-butanol fraction did not cause an enhanced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in Vk2/E6E7 cells. Additionally, no adverse effects were observed to the monolayer formed by the Caco-2 and HEC-1A epithelial cells.

Conclusions

The results presented here show a potential anti-HIV-1 activity of A. catechu mediated by the inhibition of the functions of the viral protein and Tat.

UP446, analgesic and anti-inflammatory botanical composition

Background:

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease. Long-term use of currently available therapies for RA produces adverse effects that limit dosage and duration; hence there is a need for safe and effective alternatives suitable for long term chronic use. UP446, a composition consisting primarily of baicalin from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Family: Lamiaceae) and (+)-catechin from the heartwoods of Acacia catechu (Family: Mimosaceae), has been previously shown to reduce production of eicosanoids and leukotrienes through dual inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes and to decreased mRNA and protein levels of the proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α.

Aim:

To evaluate the likelihood of UP446 in moderating arthritis and its associated symptoms in an experimental animal model of RA.

Materials and Methods:

A RA rat model was induced by injecting Freund's complete adjuvant into left and right hind paw and base of the tail. Animals were administered UP446 (50 mg/kg), ibuprofen (150 mg/kg mg/kg) or vehicle by oral gavage 30 min prior to arthritis induction and each day thereafter for 14 days.

Result:

Animals treated with UP446 showed 23.7, 31.9, 33.4, 29.3, and 33.1% reduction in pain sensitivity; 46.0, 36.7, 33.7, 34.8, and 33.4% reduction in ankle diameter on days 3, 5, 7, 9, and 13; respectively; compared to vehicle. Similarly paw edema was significantly reduced with an average of 30% for the first inflammatory reaction period (day 1–8) followed by 37.1 and 33.6% reduction on day 9 and 13.

Conclusion:

These data indicate potential benefit of UP446 in alleviating symptoms of RA and support human clinical evaluation of this botanical composition in patients with RA.

Effects of flavocoxid, a dual inhibitor of COX and 5-lipoxygenase enzymes, on benign prostatic hyperplasia

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Inflammation plays a key role in the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Eicosanoids derived from the COX and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) pathways are elevated in the enlarging prostate. Flavocoxid is a novel flavonoid-based 'dual inhibitor' of the COX and 5-LOX enzymes. This study evaluated the effects of flavocoxid in experimental BPH.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Rats were treated daily with testosterone propionate (3 mg·kg(-1)  s.c.) or its vehicle for 14 days to induce BPH. Animals receiving testosterone were randomized to receive vehicle (1 mL·kg(-1) , i.p.) or flavocoxid (20 mg·kg(-1) , i.p.) for 14 days. Histological changes, eicosanoid content and mRNA and protein levels for apoptosis-related proteins and growth factors were assayed in prostate tissue. The effects of flavocoxid were also tested on human prostate carcinoma PC3 cells.

KEY RESULTS

Flavocoxid reduced prostate weight and hyperplasia, blunted inducible expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX as well as the increased production of PGE(2) and leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4) ), enhanced pro-apoptotic Bax and caspase-9 and decreased the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 mRNA. Flavocoxid also reduced EGF and VEGF expression. In PC3 cells, flavocoxid stimulated apoptosis and inhibited growth factor expression. Flavocoxid-mediated induction of apoptosis was inhibited by the pan-caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-FMK, in PC3 cells, suggesting an essential role of caspases in flavocoxid-mediated apoptosis during prostatic growth.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results show that a 'dual inhibitor' of the COX and 5-LOX enzymes, such as flavocoxid, might represent a rational approach to reduce BPH through modulation of eicosanoid production and a caspase-induced apoptotic mechanism.

Nutritional interventions to prevent and treat osteoarthritis. Part II: focus on micronutrients and supportive nutraceuticals

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common cause of musculoskeletal disability in the elderly, and it places an enormous economic burden on society, which will remain a major health care challenge with an aging population. Management of OA is primarily focused on palliative relief using agents such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) and analgesics. However, such an approach is limited by a narrow therapeutic focus that fails to address the progressive and multimodal nature of OA. Given the favorable safety profile of most nutritional interventions, identifying disease-modifying pharmaconutrients capable of improving symptoms and also preventing, slowing, or even reversing the degenerative process in OA should remain an important paradigm in translational and clinical research. The goals of pharmaconutrition for metabolic optimization are to drive biochemical reactions in a desired direction and to meet health condition-specific metabolic demands. Applying advances in nutritional science to musculoskeletal medicine remains challenging, given the fluid and dynamic nature of the field, along with a rapidly developing regulatory climate over manufacturing and commerce requirements. The purpose of this article is to review the available literature on effectiveness and potential mechanism for OA of micronutrient vitamins; minerals; glycosaminoglycans; avocado-soybean unsaponifiable fractions; methylsulfonylmethane; s-adenosylmethionine; undenatured and hydrolyzed collagen preparations; phytoflavonoid compounds found in fruits, vegetables, spices, teas, and nuts; and other nutrients on the horizon. There also is a discussion on the concept of rational polysupplementation via the strategic integration of multiple nutraceuticals with potential complementary mechanisms for improving outcomes in OA. As applied nutritional science evolves, it will be important to stay on the forefront of proteomics, metabolomics, epigenetics, and nutrigenomics, because they hold enormous potential for developing novel therapeutic and prognostic breakthroughs in many areas of medicine, including OA.

Flavocoxid inhibits phospholipase A2, peroxidase moieties of the cyclooxygenases (COX), and 5-lipoxygenase, modifies COX-2 gene expression, and acts as an antioxidant

The multiple mechanisms of action for flavocoxid relating to arachidonic acid (AA) formation and metabolism were studied in vitro. Flavocoxid titrated into rat peritoneal macrophage cultures inhibited cellular phospholipase A2 (PLA(2)) (IC(50) = 60 μg/mL). In in vitro enzyme assays, flavocoxid showed little anti-cyclooxygenase (CO) activity on COX-1/-2 enzymes, but inhibited the COX-1 (IC(50) = 12.3) and COX-2 (IC(50) = 11.3 μg/mL) peroxidase (PO) moieties as well as 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) (IC(50) = 110 μg/mL). No detectable 5-LOX inhibition was found for multiple traditional and COX-2 selective NSAIDs. Flavocoxid also exhibited strong and varied antioxidant capacities in vitro and decreased nitrite levels (IC(50) = 38 μg/mL) in rat peritoneal macrophages. Finally, in contrast to celecoxib and ibuprofen, which upregulated the cox-2 gene, flavocoxid strongly decreased expression. This work suggests that clinically favourable effects of flavocoxid for management of osteoarthritis (OA) are achieved by simultaneous modification of multiple molecular pathways relating to AA metabolism, oxidative induction of inflammation, and neutralization of reactive oxygen species (ROS).