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Heng E, Thanedar S, Heng HH. Challenges and Opportunities for Clinical Cytogenetics in the 21st Century. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:493. [PMID: 36833419 PMCID: PMC9956237 DOI: 10.3390/genes14020493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The powerful utilities of current DNA sequencing technology question the value of developing clinical cytogenetics any further. By briefly reviewing the historical and current challenges of cytogenetics, the new conceptual and technological platform of the 21st century clinical cytogenetics is presented. Particularly, the genome architecture theory (GAT) has been used as a new framework to emphasize the importance of clinical cytogenetics in the genomic era, as karyotype dynamics play a central role in information-based genomics and genome-based macroevolution. Furthermore, many diseases can be linked to elevated levels of genomic variations within a given environment. With karyotype coding in mind, new opportunities for clinical cytogenetics are discussed to integrate genomics back into cytogenetics, as karyotypic context represents a new type of genomic information that organizes gene interactions. The proposed research frontiers include: 1. focusing on karyotypic heterogeneity (e.g., classifying non-clonal chromosome aberrations (NCCAs), studying mosaicism, heteromorphism, and nuclear architecture alteration-mediated diseases), 2. monitoring the process of somatic evolution by characterizing genome instability and illustrating the relationship between stress, karyotype dynamics, and diseases, and 3. developing methods to integrate genomic data and cytogenomics. We hope that these perspectives can trigger further discussion beyond traditional chromosomal analyses. Future clinical cytogenetics should profile chromosome instability-mediated somatic evolution, as well as the degree of non-clonal chromosomal aberrations that monitor the genomic system's stress response. Using this platform, many common and complex disease conditions, including the aging process, can be effectively and tangibly monitored for health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Heng
- Stanford University, 450 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sanjana Thanedar
- Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Henry H. Heng
- Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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2
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Kiani AK, Paolacci S, Scanzano P, Michelini S, Capodicasa N, D'Agruma L, Notarangelo A, Tonini G, Piccinelli D, Farshid KR, Petralia P, Fulcheri E, Chiurazzi P, Terranova C, Plotti F, Angioli R, Castori M, Bertelli M. Complications related to in vitro reproductive techniques support the implementation of natural procreative technologies. ACTA BIO-MEDICA : ATENEI PARMENSIS 2020; 91:e2020018. [PMID: 33170179 PMCID: PMC8023144 DOI: 10.23750/abm.v91i13-s.10525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Background and aim: Infertility affects ~20% of the couples in the world. Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) are currently the most common treatment option for infertility. Nevertheless, ARTs may be associated with complications for mothers and/or offspring. Natural procreative technology (NaProTechnology) is a natural treatment which minimizes these risks by seeking to identify the causes of infertility to enable better treatments. This narrative review summarizes the complications related to ARTs and clarifies how the NaProTechnology approach can help ARTs to achieve better results or be used in alternative to ARTs. Methods: Data in the literature indicate that NaProTechnology is a natural approach for treating infertility. Results: The percentage of live births obtained by NaProTechnology is similar to that of ARTs. Conclusions: An extensive search for the genetic defects causing infertility or subfertility through genetic testing can help both ARTs and NaProTechnology to achieve successful pregnancies. By discovering the underlying causes of infertility, genetic tests enable better family counseling, like the implications of transmitting risk- and disease-alleles to future generations. (www.actabiomedica.it)
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sandro Michelini
- Department of Vascular Rehabilitation, San Giovanni Battista Hospital, Rome, Italy.
| | | | - Leonardo D'Agruma
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS-Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.
| | - Angelantonio Notarangelo
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS-Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.
| | - Gerolamo Tonini
- Surgical Department, Unit of Urology, Poliambulanza Foundation, Brescia, Italy.
| | - Daniela Piccinelli
- Department of Mother and Child Health, Unit of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Poliambulanza Foundation, Brescia, Italy.
| | | | - Paolo Petralia
- General Director, IRCCS Giannina Gaslini Institute, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Ezio Fulcheri
- UOSD Fetal and Perinatal Pathology, Department of Translational Research, Laboratory Medicine, Diagnostics and Services, IRCCS Giannina Gaslini Institute, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Pietro Chiurazzi
- Istituto di Medicina Genomica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy; UOC Genetica Medica, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, Rome Italy.
| | - Corrado Terranova
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Campus Bio Medico, Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Plotti
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Campus Bio Medico, Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberto Angioli
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Campus Bio Medico, Rome, Italy.
| | - Marco Castori
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS-Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.
| | - Matteo Bertelli
- MAGI EUREGIO, Bolzano, Italy; MAGI'S LAB, Rovereto (TN), Italy; EBTNA-LAB, Rovereto (TN), Italy.
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Aristidou C, Theodosiou A, Ketoni A, Bak M, Mehrjouy MM, Tommerup N, Sismani C. Cryptic breakpoint identified by whole-genome mate-pair sequencing in a rare paternally inherited complex chromosomal rearrangement. Mol Cytogenet 2018; 11:34. [PMID: 29930709 PMCID: PMC5991433 DOI: 10.1186/s13039-018-0384-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Precise characterization of apparently balanced complex chromosomal rearrangements in non-affected individuals is crucial as they may result in reproductive failure, recurrent miscarriages or affected offspring. Case presentation We present a family, where the non-affected father and daughter were found, using FISH and karyotyping, to be carriers of a three-way complex chromosomal rearrangement [t(6;7;10)(q16.2;q34;q26.1), de novo in the father]. The family suffered from two stillbirths, one miscarriage, and has a son with severe intellectual disability. In the present study, the family was revisited using whole-genome mate-pair sequencing. Interestingly, whole-genome mate-pair sequencing revealed a cryptic breakpoint on derivative (der) chromosome 6 rendering the rearrangement even more complex. FISH using a chromosome (chr) 6 custom-designed probe and a chr10 control probe confirmed that the interstitial chr6 segment, created by the two chr6 breakpoints, was translocated onto der(10). Breakpoints were successfully validated with Sanger sequencing, and small imbalances as well as microhomology were identified. Finally, the complex chromosomal rearrangement breakpoints disrupted the SIM1, GRIK2, CNTNAP2, and PTPRE genes without causing any phenotype development. Conclusions In contrast to the majority of maternally transmitted complex chromosomal rearrangement cases, our study investigated a rare case where a complex chromosomal rearrangement, which most probably resulted from a Type IV hexavalent during the pachytene stage of meiosis I, was stably transmitted from a fertile father to his non-affected daughter. Whole-genome mate-pair sequencing proved highly successful in identifying cryptic complexity, which consequently provided further insight into the meiotic segregation of chromosomes and the increased reproductive risk in individuals carrying the specific complex chromosomal rearrangement. We propose that such complex rearrangements should be characterized in detail using a combination of conventional cytogenetic and NGS-based approaches to aid in better prenatal preimplantation genetic diagnosis and counseling in couples with reproductive problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantia Aristidou
- 1Department of Cytogenetics and Genomics, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus.,2The Cyprus School of Molecular Medicine, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Athina Theodosiou
- 1Department of Cytogenetics and Genomics, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Andria Ketoni
- 1Department of Cytogenetics and Genomics, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Mads Bak
- 3Wilhelm Johannsen Centre for Functional Genome Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mana M Mehrjouy
- 3Wilhelm Johannsen Centre for Functional Genome Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Tommerup
- 3Wilhelm Johannsen Centre for Functional Genome Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carolina Sismani
- 1Department of Cytogenetics and Genomics, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus.,2The Cyprus School of Molecular Medicine, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Ye CJ, Regan S, Liu G, Alemara S, Heng HH. Understanding aneuploidy in cancer through the lens of system inheritance, fuzzy inheritance and emergence of new genome systems. Mol Cytogenet 2018; 11:31. [PMID: 29760781 PMCID: PMC5946397 DOI: 10.1186/s13039-018-0376-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the past 15 years, impressive progress has been made to understand the molecular mechanism behind aneuploidy, largely due to the effort of using various -omics approaches to study model systems (e.g. yeast and mouse models) and patient samples, as well as the new realization that chromosome alteration-mediated genome instability plays the key role in cancer. As the molecular characterization of the causes and effects of aneuploidy progresses, the search for the general mechanism of how aneuploidy contributes to cancer becomes increasingly challenging: since aneuploidy can be linked to diverse molecular pathways (in regards to both cause and effect), the chances of it being cancerous is highly context-dependent, making it more difficult to study than individual molecular mechanisms. When so many genomic and environmental factors can be linked to aneuploidy, and most of them not commonly shared among patients, the practical value of characterizing additional genetic/epigenetic factors contributing to aneuploidy decreases. RESULTS Based on the fact that cancer typically represents a complex adaptive system, where there is no linear relationship between lower-level agents (such as each individual gene mutation) and emergent properties (such as cancer phenotypes), we call for a new strategy based on the evolutionary mechanism of aneuploidy in cancer, rather than continuous analysis of various individual molecular mechanisms. To illustrate our viewpoint, we have briefly reviewed both the progress and challenges in this field, suggesting the incorporation of an evolutionary-based mechanism to unify diverse molecular mechanisms. To further clarify this rationale, we will discuss some key concepts of the genome theory of cancer evolution, including system inheritance, fuzzy inheritance, and cancer as a newly emergent cellular system. CONCLUSION Illustrating how aneuploidy impacts system inheritance, fuzzy inheritance and the emergence of new systems is of great importance. Such synthesis encourages efforts to apply the principles/approaches of complex adaptive systems to ultimately understand aneuploidy in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J. Ye
- The Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Sarah Regan
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201 USA
| | - Guo Liu
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201 USA
| | - Sarah Alemara
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201 USA
| | - Henry H. Heng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201 USA
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201 USA
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Heng HH, Horne SD, Chaudhry S, Regan SM, Liu G, Abdallah BY, Ye CJ. A Postgenomic Perspective on Molecular Cytogenetics. Curr Genomics 2018; 19:227-239. [PMID: 29606910 PMCID: PMC5850511 DOI: 10.2174/1389202918666170717145716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The postgenomic era is featured by massive data collection and analyses from various large scale-omics studies. Despite the promising capability of systems biology and bioinformatics to handle large data sets, data interpretation, especially the translation of -omics data into clinical implications, has been challenging. DISCUSSION In this perspective, some important conceptual and technological limitations of current systems biology are discussed in the context of the ultimate importance of the genome beyond the collection of all genes. Following a brief summary of the contributions of molecular cytogenetics/cytogenomics in the pre- and post-genomic eras, new challenges for postgenomic research are discussed. Such discussion leads to a call to search for a new conceptual framework and holistic methodologies. CONCLUSION Throughout this synthesis, the genome theory of somatic cell evolution is highlighted in contrast to gene theory, which ignores the karyotype-mediated higher level of genetic information. Since "system inheritance" is defined by the genome context (gene content and genomic topology) while "parts inheritance" is defined by genes/epigenes, molecular cytogenetics and cytogenomics (which directly study genome structure, function, alteration and evolution) will play important roles in this postgenomic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry H. Heng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Steven D. Horne
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Sophia Chaudhry
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Sarah M. Regan
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Guo Liu
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Batoul Y. Abdallah
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Christine J. Ye
- The Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Carbone L, Chavez SL. Mammalian pre-implantation chromosomal instability: species comparison, evolutionary considerations, and pathological correlations. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2015; 61:321-35. [PMID: 26366555 DOI: 10.3109/19396368.2015.1073406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Pre-implantation embryo development in mammals begins at fertilization with the migration and fusion of the maternal and paternal pro-nuclei, followed by the degradation of inherited factors involved in germ cell specification and the activation of embryonic genes required for subsequent cell divisions, compaction, and blastulation. The majority of studies on early embryogenesis have been conducted in the mouse or non-mammalian species, often requiring extrapolation of the findings to human development. Given both conserved similarities and species-specific differences, however, even comparison between closely related mammalian species may be challenging as certain aspects, including susceptibility to chromosomal aberrations, varies considerably across mammals. Moreover, most human embryo studies are limited to patient samples obtained from in vitro fertilization (IVF) clinics and donated for research, which are generally of poorer quality and produced with germ cells that may be sub-optimal. Recent technical advances in genetic, epigenetic, chromosomal, and time-lapse imaging analyses of high quality whole human embryos have greatly improved our understanding of early human embryogenesis, particularly at the single embryo and cell level. This review summarizes the major characteristics of mammalian pre-implantation development from a chromosomal perspective, in addition to discussing the technological achievements that have recently been developed to obtain this data. We also discuss potential translation to clinical applications in reproductive medicine and conclude by examining the broader implications of these findings for the evolution of mammalian species and cancer pathology in somatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Carbone
- a Division of Neuroscience , Oregon National Primate Research Center .,b Department of Behavioral Neuroscience .,c Department of Molecular & Medical Genetics .,d Bioinformatics & Computational Biology, Oregon Health & Science University
| | - Shawn L Chavez
- e Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences , Oregon National Primate Research Center .,f Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology , and.,g Department of Physiology & Pharmacology , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , Oregon , USA
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7
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Heng HH, Bremer SW, Stevens JB, Horne SD, Liu G, Abdallah BY, Ye KJ, Ye CJ. Chromosomal instability (CIN): what it is and why it is crucial to cancer evolution. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2014; 32:325-40. [PMID: 23605440 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-013-9427-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Results of various cancer genome sequencing projects have "unexpectedly" challenged the framework of the current somatic gene mutation theory of cancer. The prevalence of diverse genetic heterogeneity observed in cancer questions the strategy of focusing on contributions of individual gene mutations. Much of the genetic heterogeneity in tumors is due to chromosomal instability (CIN), a predominant hallmark of cancer. Multiple molecular mechanisms have been attributed to CIN but unifying these often conflicting mechanisms into one general mechanism has been challenging. In this review, we discuss multiple aspects of CIN including its definitions, methods of measuring, and some common misconceptions. We then apply the genome-based evolutionary theory to propose a general mechanism for CIN to unify the diverse molecular causes. In this new evolutionary framework, CIN represents a system behavior of a stress response with adaptive advantages but also serves as a new potential cause of further destabilization of the genome. Following a brief review about the newly realized functions of chromosomes that defines system inheritance and creates new genomes, we discuss the ultimate importance of CIN in cancer evolution. Finally, a number of confusing issues regarding CIN are explained in light of the evolutionary function of CIN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry H Heng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA,
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8
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Horne SD, Chowdhury SK, Heng HHQ. Stress, genomic adaptation, and the evolutionary trade-off. Front Genet 2014; 5:92. [PMID: 24795754 PMCID: PMC4005935 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2014.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells are constantly exposed to various internal and external stresses. The importance of cellular stress and its implication to disease conditions have become popular research topics. Many ongoing investigations focus on the sources of stress, their specific molecular mechanisms and interactions, especially regarding their contributions to many common and complex diseases through defined molecular pathways. Numerous molecular mechanisms have been linked to endoplasmic reticulum stress along with many unexpected findings, drastically increasing the complexity of our molecular understanding and challenging how to apply individual mechanism-based knowledge in the clinic. A newly emergent genome theory searches for the synthesis of a general evolutionary mechanism that unifies different types of stress and functional relationships from a genome-defined system point of view. Herein, we discuss the evolutionary relationship between stress and somatic cell adaptation under physiological, pathological, and somatic cell survival conditions, the multiple meanings to achieve adaptation and its potential trade-off. In particular, we purposely defocus from specific stresses and mechanisms by redirecting attention toward studying underlying general mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Horne
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University Detroit, MI, USA
| | | | - Henry H Q Heng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University Detroit, MI, USA ; Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University Detroit, MI, USA
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Stevens JB, Abdallah BY, Liu G, Horne SD, Bremer SW, Ye KJ, Huang JY, Kurkinen M, Ye CJ, Heng HHQ. Heterogeneity of cell death. Cytogenet Genome Res 2013; 139:164-73. [PMID: 23548436 DOI: 10.1159/000348679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell death constitutes a number of heterogeneous processes. Despite the dynamic nature of cell death, studies of cell death have primarily focused on apoptosis, and cell death has often been viewed as static events occurring in linear pathways. In this article we review cell death heterogeneity with specific focus on 4 aspects of cell death: the type of cell death; how it is induced; its mechanism(s); the results of cell death, and the implications of cell death heterogeneity for both basic and clinical research. This specifically reveals that cell death occurs in multiple overlapping forms that simultaneously occur within a population. Network and pathway heterogeneity in cell death is also discussed. Failure to integrate cell death heterogeneity within analyses can lead to inaccurate predictions of the amount of cell death that takes place in a tumor. Similarly, many molecular methods employed in cell death studies homogenize a population removing heterogeneity between individual cells and can be deceiving. Finally, and most importantly, cell death heterogeneity is linked to the formation of new genome systems through induction of aneuploidy and genome chaos (rapid genome reorganization).
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Stevens
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Mich. 48201, USA
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Heng HHQ, Liu G, Stevens JB, Abdallah BY, Horne SD, Ye KJ, Bremer SW, Chowdhury SK, Ye CJ. Karyotype heterogeneity and unclassified chromosomal abnormalities. Cytogenet Genome Res 2013; 139:144-57. [PMID: 23571381 DOI: 10.1159/000348682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In a departure from traditional gene-centric thinking with regard to cytogenetics and cytogenomics, the recently introduced genome theory calls upon a re-focusing of our attention on karyotype analyses of disease conditions. Karyotype heterogeneity has been demonstrated to be directly involved in the somatic cell evolution process which is the basis of many common and complex diseases such as cancer. To correctly use karyotype heterogeneity and apply it to monitor system instability, we need to include many seemingly unimportant non-specific chromosomal aberrations into our analysis. Traditionally, cytogenetic analysis has been focused on identifying recurrent types of abnormalities, particularly those that have been linked to specific diseases. In this perspective, drawing on the new framework of 4D-genomics, we will briefly review the importance of studying karyotype heterogeneity. We have also listed a number of overlooked chromosomal aberrations including defective mitotic figures, chromosome fragmentation as well as genome chaos. Finally, we call for the systematic discovery/characterization and classification of karyotype abnormalities in human diseases, as karyotype heterogeneity is the common factor that is essential for somatic cell evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Q Heng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Mich. 48201, USA.
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