Procyanidins in Theobroma cacao Reduce Plasma Cholesterol Levels in High Cholesterol-Fed Rats

Phylogenomic Analysis of Cytochrome P450 Gene Superfamily and Their Association with Flavonoids Biosynthesis in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) constitute extensive enzyme superfamilies in the plants, playing pivotal roles in a multitude of biosynthetic and detoxification pathways essential for growth and development, such as the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. However, CYPs have not yet been systematically studied in the cultivated peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), a globally significant cash crop. This study addresses this knowledge deficit through a comprehensive genome-wide analysis, leading to the identification of 589 AhCYP genes in peanuts. Through phylogenetic analysis, all AhCYPs were systematically classified into 9 clans, 43 gene families. The variability in the number of gene family members suggests specialization in biological functions. Intriguingly, both tandem duplication and fragment duplication events have emerged as pivotal drivers in the evolutionary expansion of the AhCYP superfamily. Ka/Ks analysis underscored the substantial influence of strong purifying selection on the evolution of AhCYPs. Furthermore, we selected 21 genes encoding 8 enzymes associated with the flavonoid pathway. The results of quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) experiments unveiled stage-specific expression patterns during the development of peanut testa, with discernible variations between pink and red testa. Importantly, we identified a direct correlation between gene expression levels and the accumulation of metabolites. These findings offer valuable insights into elucidating the comprehensive functions of AhCYPs and the underlying mechanisms governing the divergent accumulation of flavonoids in testa of different colors.

Targeted metabolome analysis reveals accumulation of metabolites in testa of four peanut germplasms

Cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important source of edible oil and protein. Peanut testa (seed coat) provides protection for seeds and serves as a carrier for diversity metabolites necessary for human health. There is significant diversity available for testa color in peanut germplasms. However, the kinds and type of metabolites in peanut testa has not been comprehensively investigated. In this study, we performed metabolite profiling using UPLC-MS/MS for four peanut germplasm lines with different testa colors, including pink, purple, red, and white. A total of 85 metabolites were identified in four peanuts. Comparative metabolomics analysis identified 78 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs). Some metabolites showed significant correlation with other metabolites. For instance, proanthocyanidins were positively correlated with cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside and malvin, and negatively correlated with pelargonidin-3-glucoside. We observed that the total proanthocyanidins are most abundant in pink peanut variety WH10. The red testa accumulated more isoflavones, flavonols and anthocyanidins compared with that in pink testa. These results provided valuable information about differential accumulation of metabolites in testa with different color, which are helpful for further investigation of the molecular mechanism underlying biosynthesis and accumulation of these metabolites in peanut.

(-)-Epicatechin and the comorbidities of obesity

Obesity has major adverse consequences on human health contributing to the development of, among others, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, altered behavior and cognition, and cancer. Changes in dietary habits and lifestyle could contribute to mitigate the development and/or progression of these pathologies. This review will discuss current evidence on the beneficial actions of the flavan-3-ol (-)-epicatechin (EC) on obesity-associated comorbidities. These benefits can be in part explained through EC's capacity to mitigate several common events underlying the development of these pathologies, including: i) high circulating levels of glucose, lipids and endotoxins; ii) chronic systemic inflammation; iii) tissue endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stress; iv) insulin resistance; v) mitochondria dysfunction and vi) dysbiosis. The currently known underlying mechanisms and cellular targets of EC's beneficial effects are discussed. While, there is limited evidence from human studies supplementing with pure EC, other studies involving cocoa supplementation in humans, pure EC in rodents and in vitro studies, support a potential beneficial action of EC on obesity-associated comorbidities. This evidence also stresses the need of further research in the field, which would contribute to the development of human dietary strategies to mitigate the adverse consequences of obesity.

Cocoa Flavanols: Natural Agents with Attenuating Effects on Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factors

The interest in cacao flavanols is still growing, as bioactive compounds with potential benefits in the prevention of chronic diseases associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Several analytical methodologies support that the flavanols in cacao-derived products can be absorbed, have bioactive properties, and thus can be responsible for their beneficial effects on human health. However, it must be considered that their biological actions and underlying molecular mechanisms will depend on the concentrations achieved in their target tissues. Based on the antioxidant properties of cacao flavanols, this review focuses on recent advances in research regarding their potential to improve metabolic syndrome risk factors. Additionally, it has included other secondary plant metabolites that have been investigated for their protective effects against metabolic syndrome. Studies using laboratory animals or human subjects represent strong available evidence for biological effects of cacao flavanols. Nevertheless, in vitro studies are also included to provide an overview of these phytochemical mechanisms of action. Further studies are needed to determine if the main cacao flavanols or their metabolites are responsible for the observed health benefits and which are their precise molecular mechanisms.

The predictive utility of the plant phylogeny in identifying sources of cardiovascular drugs

CONTEXT

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one cause of death globally, responsible for over 17 million (31%) deaths in the world. Novel pharmacological interventions may be needed given the high prevalence of CVD.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to find potential new sources of cardiovascular (CV) drugs from phylogenetic and pharmacological analyses of plant species that have experimental and traditional CV applications in the literature.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reconstructed the molecular phylogeny of these plant species and mapped their pharmacological mechanisms of action on the phylogeny.

RESULTS

Out of 139 plant species in 71 plant families, seven plant families with 45 species emerged as phylogenetically important exhibiting common CV mechanisms of action within the family, as would be expected given their common ancestry: Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Rosaceae and Zingiberaceae. Apiaceae and Brassicaceae promoted diuresis and hypotension; Fabaceae and Lamiaceae had anticoagulant/thrombolytic effects; Apiaceae and Zingiberaceae were calcium channel blockers. Moreover, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Rosaceae and Zingiberaceae species were found to possess anti-atherosclerotic properties.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The phylogeny identified certain plant families with disproportionately more species, highlighting their importance as sources of natural products for CV drug discovery. Though there were some species that did not show the same mechanism within the family, the phylogeny predicts that these species may contain undiscovered phytochemistry, and potentially, the same bioactivity. Evolutionary pharmacology, as applied here, may guide and expedite our efforts in discovering sources of new CV drugs.

Acute Cocoa Supplementation Increases Postprandial HDL Cholesterol and Insulin in Obese Adults with Type 2 Diabetes after Consumption of a High-Fat Breakfast

BACKGROUND

Dietary cocoa is an important source of flavonoids and is associated with favorable cardiovascular disease effects, such as improvements in vascular function and lipid profiles, in nondiabetic adults. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with adverse effects on postprandial serum glucose, lipids, inflammation, and vascular function.

OBJECTIVE

We examined the hypothesis that cocoa reduces metabolic stress in obese T2D adults after a high-fat fast-food-style meal.

METHODS

Adults with T2D [n = 18; age (mean ± SE): 56 ± 3 y; BMI (in kg/m(2)): 35.3 ± 2.0; 14 women; 4 men] were randomly assigned to receive cocoa beverage (960 mg total polyphenols; 480 mg flavanols) or flavanol-free placebo (110 mg total polyphenols; <0.1 mg flavanols) with a high-fat fast-food-style breakfast [766 kcal, 50 g fat (59% energy)] in a crossover trial. After an overnight fast (10-12 h), participants consumed the breakfast with cocoa or placebo, and blood sample collection [glucose, insulin, lipids, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP)] and vascular measurements were conducted at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 h postprandially on each study day. Insulin resistance was evaluated by homeostasis model assessment.

RESULTS

Over the 6-h study, and specifically at 1 and 4 h, cocoa increased HDL cholesterol vs. placebo (overall Δ: 1.5 ± 0.8 mg/dL; P ≤ 0.01) but had no effect on total and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, and hsCRP. Cocoa increased serum insulin concentrations overall (Δ: 5.2 ± 3.2 mU/L; P < 0.05) and specifically at 4 h but had no overall effects on insulin resistance (except at 4 h, P < 0.05), systolic or diastolic blood pressure, or small artery elasticity. However, large artery elasticity was overall lower after cocoa vs. placebo (Δ: -1.6 ± 0.7 mL/mm Hg; P < 0.05), with the difference significant only at 2 h.

CONCLUSION

Acute cocoa supplementation showed no clear overall benefit in T2D patients after a high-fat fast-food-style meal challenge. Although HDL cholesterol and insulin remained higher throughout the 6-h postprandial period, an overall decrease in large artery elasticity was found after cocoa consumption. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01886989.

Flavan-3-ol fraction from cocoa powder promotes mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle in mice

BACKGROUND

Numerous clinical studies have reported that ingestion of chocolate has reduced risk of metabolic syndrome. In order to elucidate the mechanism, we evaluated the influence of flavan-3-ols derived from cocoa powder on energy metabolism in mice using an indirect calorimetric method.

METHOD

The mice were divided into two groups, and administered either distilled water or 50 mg/kg of flavan-3-ol fraction for 2 weeks. At the end of the experimental period, animals were sacrificed after blood pressure and the mean respiratory exchange ratio (RER) over 24 hours were measured.

RESULTS

The mean respiratory exchange ratio (RER) over 24 hours was reduced significantly in the flavan-3-ols group. The mean blood pressure was significantly decreased in flavan-3-ols treatment group compared with control group. The protein level of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2 (CPT2) was increased significantly by flavan-3-ols in skeletal muscle, but not in liver. Uncoupling protein (UCP) 1 was increased significantly in brown adipose tissue by flavan-3-ols. The mitochondria copy number in gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and brown adipose tissue were increased significantly by administration of flavan-3-ol fraction.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that flavan-3-ols enhances lipolysis and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis. We conclude that improvement of metabolic syndrome risk factors following ingestion of chocolate may be induced, in part, by the mitochondrial biogenesis-promoting effect of flavan-3-ols.

Effects of chocolate supplementation on metabolic and cardiovascular parameters in ApoE3L mice fed a high-cholesterol atherogenic diet

SCOPE

Dietary intake of cocoa and/or chocolate has been suggested to exhibit protective cardiovascular effects although this is still controversial. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of chocolate supplementation on metabolic and cardiovascular parameters.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Four groups of ApoE*3Leiden mice were exposed to the following diet regimens. Group 1: cholesterol-free control diet (CO). Group 2: high-dose (1.0% w/w) control cholesterol (CC). Group 3: CC supplemented chocolate A (CCA) and Group 4: CC supplemented chocolate B (CCB). Both chocolates differed in polyphenol and fiber content, CCA had a relatively high-polyphenol and low-fiber content compared to CCB. Mice fed a high-cholesterol diet showed increased plasma-cholesterol and developed atherosclerosis. Both chocolate treatments, particularly CCA, further increased plasma-cholesterol and increased atherosclerotic plaque formation. Moreover, compared to mice fed a high-cholesterol diet, both chocolate-treated groups displayed increased liver injury. Mice on high-cholesterol diet had elevated plasma levels of sVCAM-1, sE-selectin and SAA, which was further increased in the CCB group. Similar effects were observed for renal inflammation markers.

CONCLUSION

The two chocolate preparations showed unfavorable, but different effects on cardiometabolic health in E3L mice, which dissimilarities may be related to differences in chocolate composition. We conclude that discrepancies reported on the effects of chocolate on cardiometabolic health may at least partly be due to differences in chocolate composition.

Cocoa and human health

Cocoa is a dry, powdered, nonfat component product prepared from the seeds of the Theobroma cacao L. tree and is a common ingredient of many food products, particularly chocolate. Nutritionally, cocoa contains biologically active substances that may affect human health: flavonoids (epicatechin and oligomeric procyanidins), theobromine, and magnesium. Theobromine and epicatechin are absorbed efficiently in the small intestine, and the nature of their conjugates and metabolites are now known. Oligomeric procyanidins are poorly absorbed in the small intestine, but catabolites are very efficiently absorbed after microbial biotransformation in the colon. A significant number of studies, using in vitro and in vivo approaches, on the effects of cocoa and its constituent flavonoids have been conducted. Most human intervention studies have been performed on cocoa as an ingredient, whereas many in vitro studies have been performed on individual components. Approximately 70 human intervention studies have been carried out on cocoa and cocoa-containing products over the past 12 years, with a variety of endpoints. These studies indicate that the most robust biomarkers affected are endothelial function, blood pressure, and cholesterol level. Mechanistically, supporting evidence shows that epicatechin affects nitric oxide synthesis and breakdown (via inhibition of nicotinamide adenine di-nucleotide phosphate oxidase) and the substrate arginine (via inhibition of arginase), among other targets. Evidence further supports cocoa as a biologically active ingredient with potential benefits on biomarkers related to cardiovascular disease. However, the calorie and sugar content of chocolate and its contribution to the total diet should be taken into account in intervention studies.