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Azevedo RA, Lage CFA, Silper BF, Diniz Neto HC, Quigley JD, Coelho SG. Invited review: Total solids concentration in milk or milk replacer for dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:7341-7351. [PMID: 37641291 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Restricting milk or milk replacer (MR) fed to dairy calves to 10% of body weight at 12.5% total solids (TS) concentration is a common feeding strategy that promotes early weaning and lowers total feed costs for raising young calves. However, this strategy has been associated with inferior performance and compromised welfare. Because a restricted liquid nutrition plan limits calf growth due to limited supply of nutrients, research on increased supply of nutrients from liquid has shown improved growth, health, and welfare of calves. Nutrient supply may be increased by feeding larger amounts of milk or MR averaging 12.5% TS, or by increasing TS above the usual 12.5% TS by increasing MR TS concentration alone (TS+), or by increasing TS concentration and volume simultaneously (TSV+). The objective of this review is to discuss liquid nutrition plans with greater TS concentration in MR or in milk diets, considering the effects of such strategies on performance and digestive tract development before weaning and the future performance of dairy calves. This review will focus on liquid nutrition plans that are based on increased TS concentration (i.e., TS+ or TSV+); therefore, enhanced liquid nutrition plans based only on increased volumes will not be the discussed. Improved growth rates have been observed in calves fed TSV+ programs. However, reduced starter intake preweaning can also have negative effects on dry matter intake, average daily gain, and digestibility postweaning. Feeding a TS+ program may reduce impairment of starter intake and therefore have positive effects on performance, nutrient digestibility, and health. When considering an accelerated nutrition plan with TS+ or TSV+, it is important to consider osmolality of the liquid diet. Further studies are necessary to confirm this hypothesis and the cost-benefit of alternative liquid nutrition plans, as well as the optimal TS concentration of milk or MR fed to dairy calves.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - C F A Lage
- Cornell Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - B F Silper
- Brejo Alegre Farm, Itaúna 35684000, MG, Brazil
| | - H C Diniz Neto
- Departamento de Zootecnia, Escola de Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270901, MG, Brazil
| | - J D Quigley
- Cargill Animal Nutrition, Elk River, MN 55330
| | - S G Coelho
- Departamento de Zootecnia, Escola de Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270901, MG, Brazil
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Vang AL, Bresolin T, Frizzarini WS, Menezes GL, Cunha T, Rosa GJM, Hernandez LL, Dorea JRR. Longitudinal analysis of bovine mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2023; 28:11. [PMID: 37249685 PMCID: PMC10229473 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-023-09534-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies on bovine mammary glands focus on one stage of development. Often missing in those studies are repeated measures of development from the same animals. As milk production is directly affected by amount of parenchymal tissue within the udder, understanding mammary gland growth along with visualization of its structures during development is essential. Therefore, analysis of ultrasound and histology data from the same animals would result in better understanding of mammary development over time. Thus, this research aimed to describe mammary gland development using non-invasive and invasive tools to delineate growth rate of glandular tissue responsible for potential future milk production. Mammary gland ultrasound images, biopsy samples, and blood samples were collected from 36 heifer dairy calves beginning at 10 weeks of age, and evaluated at 26, 39, and 52 weeks. Parenchyma was quantified at 10 weeks of age using ultrasound imaging and histological evaluation, and average echogenicity was utilized to quantify parenchyma at later stages of development. A significant negative correlation was detected between average echogenicity of parenchyma at 10 weeks and total adipose as a percent of histological whole tissue at 52 weeks. Additionally, a negative correlation between average daily gain at 10 and 26 weeks and maximum echogenicity at 52 weeks was present. These results suggest average daily gain and mammary gland development prior to 39 weeks of age is associated with development of the mammary gland after 39 weeks. These findings could be predictors of future milk production, however this must be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysia L Vang
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Tiago Bresolin
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign, IL, 61801, Urbana, USA
| | - Waneska S Frizzarini
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Guilherme L Menezes
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Thiago Cunha
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Guilherme J M Rosa
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Laura L Hernandez
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Joao R R Dorea
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.
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Performance of Holstein calves receiving increased nutrient intake through the addition of skim milk or milk replacer powder to the whole milk. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.115013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Molenaar AJ, Maclean PH, Gilmour ML, Draganova IG, Symes CW, Margerison JK, McMahon CD. Effect of whole-milk allowance on liveweight gain and growth of parenchyma and fat pads in the mammary glands of dairy heifers at weaning. J Dairy Sci 2020; 103:5061-5069. [PMID: 32229126 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2019-17126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The rates of development of 2 tissues in mammary glands, parenchyma (PAR) and the mammary fat pad (MFP), in response to nutrition in early life might have a major bearing on lifetime milk production. Historical studies reported that feeding greater amounts of dietary nutrients from postweaning to puberty increased growth rates of heifers and stimulated the growth of MFP at the expense of PAR, which might suggest compromised mammary development and future milk production. The current study sought to determine if a higher volume of whole milk (8 vs. 4 L/d) offered to calves would increase rates of growth and development of PAR in mammary glands at weaning (1 to 12 wk). To measure these tissues, we developed 2 simple methods to assess the size of PAR and MFP at the time of screening using ultrasound. We report that calves offered 8 L/d of whole milk had greater rates of growth until weaning (0.86 ± 0.06 vs. 0.81 ± 0.09 kg/d), compared with calves offered 4 L/d. Ultrasonography showed that despite the faster rates of growth in calves offered 8 L/d of milk/d, the ratio of PAR:MFP depth was 40% less at weaning in the front glands (34%) compared with calves offered 4 L of milk/d. Rear glands were less impaired. The ultrasound methods developed here might be useful to monitor the development of mammary glands in response to different nutritional regimens during the preweaning period.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Molenaar
- AgResearch Ltd., Grassland Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - P H Maclean
- AgResearch Ltd., Grassland Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - M L Gilmour
- Mark Gilmour Consulting Ltd., 443 Tutaenui Road, Marton 4788, New Zealand
| | - I G Draganova
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - C W Symes
- Catalyst Ltd., Christchurch, New Zealand 8245.
| | - J K Margerison
- School of Bioscience, Division of Animal Science, University of Nottingham, Nr Loughborough, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
| | - C D McMahon
- ManukaMed LP, Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Rd, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand
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Hare KS, Leal LN, Romao JM, Hooiveld GJ, Soberon F, Berends H, Van Amburgh ME, Martín-Tereso J, Steele MA. Preweaning nutrient supply alters mammary gland transcriptome expression relating to morphology, lipid accumulation, DNA synthesis, and RNA expression in Holstein heifer calves. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:2618-2630. [PMID: 30612800 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the mammary gland transcriptome to determine how preweaning nutrient supply alters the molecular mechanisms that regulate preweaning mammary development. Holstein heifers were fed via milk replacer (MR) either an elevated level of nutrient intake (ELE; on average, 5.9 ± 0.2 Mcal of ME in 8.4 L of MR/d, n = 6) or a restricted amount of nutrients (RES; 2.8 ± 0.2 Mcal of ME in 4 L of MR/d, n = 5) for 54 d after birth, at which point they were slaughtered and samples of mammary parenchyma tissue were obtained. Parenchymal mRNA was analyzed, and the fold change (FC) of 18,111 genes (ELE relative to RES) was uploaded to Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software (Qiagen Bioinformatics, Redwood City, CA) for transcriptomic analysis. Using a threshold of P < 0.05, IPA identified that the FC of 1,931 of 18,811 differentially expressed genes (DEG) could be used for the analysis. A total of 18 molecular and cellular functions were relevant to DEG arising from the treatments; the 5 functions most associated with DEG were cell death and survival, cellular movement, cellular development, cellular growth and proliferation, and lipid metabolism. Based on the directional FC of DEG, the mammary gland of ELE heifers was predicted to have increased epithelial-mesenchymal transition (Z = 2.685) and accumulation of lipid (Z = 2.322), whereas the synthesis of DNA (Z = -2.137), transactivation of RNA (Z = -2.254), expression of RNA (Z = -2.405), transcription (Z = -2.482), and transactivation (Z = -2.611) were all predicted to be decreased. Additionally, IPA predicted the activation status of 13 upstream regulators with direct influence on DEG as affected by ELE feeding that were ligand-dependent nuclear receptors (n = 2), enzymes (n = 1), or transcription regulators (n = 10). Of these, 6 were activated (Z > 2) and 7 were inhibited (Z < -2). In summary, feeding ELE preweaning altered the mammary transcriptome of Holstein heifers, affecting cell functions involved in the morphological and physiological development of the mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Hare
- Department of Animal Bioscience, Animal Science and Nutrition, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 1Y2, Canada
| | - L N Leal
- R&D, Trouw Nutrition, PO Box 299, Amersfoort, 3800 AG, the Netherlands
| | - J M Romao
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Alberta, Alberta, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - G J Hooiveld
- Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University, PO Box 17, Wageningen, 6700 AA, the Netherlands
| | - F Soberon
- Trouw Nutrition USA, Highland, IL 62249
| | - H Berends
- R&D, Trouw Nutrition, PO Box 299, Amersfoort, 3800 AG, the Netherlands
| | - M E Van Amburgh
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - J Martín-Tereso
- R&D, Trouw Nutrition, PO Box 299, Amersfoort, 3800 AG, the Netherlands
| | - M A Steele
- Department of Animal Bioscience, Animal Science and Nutrition, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 1Y2, Canada.
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