Lameness and lying behavior in grazing dairy cows

Development of a real-time cattle lameness detection system using a single side-view camera

Recent advancements in machine learning and deep learning have revolutionized various computer vision applications, including object detection, tracking, and classification. This research investigates the application of deep learning for cattle lameness detection in dairy farming. Our study employs image processing techniques and deep learning methods for cattle detection, tracking, and lameness classification. We utilize two powerful object detection algorithms: Mask-RCNN from Detectron2 and the popular YOLOv8. Their performance is compared to identify the most effective approach for this application. Bounding boxes are drawn around detected cattle to assign unique local IDs, enabling individual tracking and isolation throughout the video sequence. Additionally, mask regions generated by the chosen detection algorithm provide valuable data for feature extraction, which is crucial for subsequent lameness classification. The extracted cattle mask region values serve as the basis for feature extraction, capturing relevant information indicative of lameness. These features, combined with the local IDs assigned during tracking, are used to compute a lameness score for each cattle. We explore the efficacy of various established machine learning algorithms, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), AdaBoost and so on, in analyzing the extracted lameness features. Evaluation of the proposed system was conducted across three key domains: detection, tracking, and lameness classification. Notably, the detection module employing Detectron2 achieved an impressive accuracy of 98.98%. Similarly, the tracking module attained a high accuracy of 99.50%. In lameness classification, AdaBoost emerged as the most effective algorithm, yielding the highest overall average accuracy (77.9%). Other established machine learning algorithms, including Decision Trees (DT), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Random Forests, also demonstrated promising performance (DT: 75.32%, SVM: 75.20%, Random Forest: 74.9%). The presented approach demonstrates the successful implementation for cattle lameness detection. The proposed system has the potential to revolutionize dairy farm management by enabling early lameness detection and facilitating effective monitoring of cattle health. Our findings contribute valuable insights into the application of advanced computer vision methods for livestock health management.

Invited review: Prevalence, risk factors, treatment, and barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries in dairy cattle-A narrative review

Lameness and leg injuries are both painful and prevalent across the dairy industry, and are a major welfare concern. There has been a considerable amount of research focused on investigating the risk factors associated with lameness and injuries and how they might be prevented and treated. The objectives of this narrative review were to summarize herd-level prevalence estimates, risk factors, strategies for prevention, control, and treatment of these conditions, and the barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There is a relatively high within-herd prevalence of lameness on dairy farms globally, with a recent systematic review estimating the mean prevalence at 22.8%. Similarly, there is a relatively high prevalence of hock injuries, with within-herd estimates ranging from 12% to 81% of cows affected. Knee and neck injuries have been reported to be less common, with 6% to 43% and 1% to 33%, respectively. Numerous risk factors have been associated with the incidence of lameness, notably housing (e.g., access to pasture, bedding depth, bedding type, flooring type, stall design), management (e.g., stall cleanliness, frequency of trimming, holding times, stocking density), and cow-level (e.g., body condition, parity, injured hocks) factors. Risk factors associated with hock injuries can be similarly classified into housing (e.g., bedding type and depth, outdoor access, parlor type, stall design), management (e.g., bedding depth, cleanliness), and cow (e.g., parity, days in milk, lameness) factors. Key preventative approaches for lameness include routine preventative and corrective hoof trimming, improving hoof cushioning and traction through access to pasture or adding rubber flooring, deep-bedded stalls, sand bedding, ensuring appropriate stocking densities, reduced holding times, and the frequent use of routine footbaths. Very little research has been conducted on hock, knee, and neck injury prevention and recovery. Numerous researchers have concluded that both extrinsic (e.g., time, money, space) and intrinsic (e.g., farmer attitude, perception, priorities, and mindset) barriers exist to addressing lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There are many diverse stakeholders in lameness and injury management including the farmer, farm staff, veterinarian, hoof trimmer, nutritionist, and other advisors. Addressing dairy cattle lameness and injuries must, therefore, consider the people involved, as it is these people who are influencing and implementing on-farm decisions related to lameness prevention, treatment, and control.

A systematic review of the effects of silvopastoral system on thermal environment and dairy cows' behavioral and physiological responses

Does the silvopastoral system (SPS) promote a satisfactory thermal environment for dairy cows to perform their natural behaviors and perform a suitable thermoregulatory function? To answer this, peer-reviewed articles, written in English and evaluating the effects of silvopastoral systems on thermal environment, dairy cows' behavior, and physiology were used in this systematic review; additionally, a bibliometric approach was performed. Web of Science and Google Scholar were used to compile the literature. The resulting articles (1448) underwent a 4-step appraisal process and resulted in 19 articles that fitted our inclusion criteria. Microclimate variables and thermal comfort indicators were the most researched topics (discussed in 89% of studies); 47% of studies addressed cattle behavior and 36% physiological responses. Our review highlights different benefits of silvopastoral systems for grazing dairy cows. For example, the SPS provides a more comfortable thermal environment than treeless pasture, which increases feeding behaviors; furthermore, dairy cows in SPS show lower drinking events, surface temperature, and respiratory rate than cows raised in treeless pasture. However, for nine of the variables related to cows' behavior (e.g., resting, rumination) and physiology responses (e.g., internal temperature), the results of the studies were unclear. Furthermore, behaviors associated with lying down (e.g., idling and rumination) and milk production in SPS were explored only in six and two studies, respectively. These findings provide consistent evidence that the silvopastoral systems are beneficial to thermal comfort of dairy cows; nonetheless, the effect on cows' behavioral and physiological responses is still scarce and unclear.

Association between Milk Electrical Conductivity Biomarkers with Lameness in Dairy Cows

Early identification of lameness at all phases of lactation improves milk yield and reduces the incidence of mastitis in the herd. According to the literature we hypothesized that there are associations of electrical conductivity variables of milk flow with lameness in dairy cows. The aim of this study was to determine if blood cortisol and electrical conductivity in the milk flow phases correlate with each other and whether they are related to cow lameness. On one farm, out of 1500 cows, 64 cows with signs of lameness and 56 healthy cows were selected with an average of 2.8 lactations and 60 days in the postpartum period. A local veterinarian who specializes in hoof care treatments identified and scored lameness. During evening milking, the milk flow of all 120 cows was measured using electronic milk flow meters (Lactocorder®, WMB AG, Balgache, Switzerland). Before each milking, two electronic mobile milk flow meters (Lactocorders) were mounted between the milking apparatus and the milking tube to take measurements. We found that the average cortisol concentration in the blood of the studied cows was significantly correlated with the laminitis score. Results of this study indicate that the number of non-lame cows with a milk electrical conductivity level of <6 mS/cm even reached 90.8−92.3% of animals. Milk electrical conductivity indicators ≥ 6 mS/cm were determined in 17.8−29.0% more animals in the group of lame cows compared to the group of non-lame cows. According to our study, we detected that blood cortisol concentration had the strongest positive correlation with milk electrical conductivity indicators. Cows with a greater lameness score had a higher cortisol content and milk conductivity.

Behavior and thermal comfort of light and dark coat dairy cows in the Eastern Amazon

This study aimed to evaluate the behavior and thermal comfort of 20 Girolando cows (5/8-H/G), with light and dark coats, in the wettest period of the year, in Santarém, Pará, Brazil, in pasture with access to shade, and plenty of drinking water and mineral salt. Animal behavior categories were computed for 12 h a day, on 3 days in a row, by trained observers. Three day shifts were considered: Morning (6:00 a.m. to 9:55 a.m.), Intermediate (10:00 a.m. to 01:55 p.m.) and Afternoon (2:00 p.m. to 05:55 p.m.). The Temperature Index (TI), the Black Globe Humidity Index (BGHI) and the Comfort Index (CI) were calculated to measure thermal comfort. At all times studied, BGHI pointed that the environment was outside the thermal comfort zone. Dark-coated animals spent more 34.26% of the time in activities in the shade. The light-coated animals remained more 11.88% of the time in the sun, performing their natural behaviors. Both light and dark coat animals remained more 77 and 74.44% of the time in the sun, respectively. The behavior “in the sun while grazing” was the most evident, in both coats, in the studied shifts. The behaviors “in the shade while walking” and “in the shade while standing idle” were more evident (p < 0.01) in dark-coated cattle. The grazing behavior was higher in animals with dark coat (p < 0.05). In all evaluated shifts, there was a positive correlation between the behavior “in the sun while grazing” with the CI (r = 0.44211; p < 0.0305). Behaviors performed in the shade, such as “idleness while lying down,” “ruminating while lying down and standing up,” and behaviors “in the sun,” “idleness while lying down” and “ruminating while lying down,” were negatively correlated with CI. It is concluded that, even in the wettest period of the year, in the Eastern Amazon, Girolando dairy cows are exposed to hot environments, which causes thermal discomfort and changes in their natural behavior, as they spend more time standing in shaded areas, usually in rumination. Also, light-coated cows spend more time in the sun, while dark-coated cows spend more time in the shade. Thus, light-coated cows tend to have health and zootechnical performance negatively affected.

Effects of free-choice pasture access on lameness recovery and behavior of lame dairy cattle

Lameness is a common condition in dairy cows. Free-choice access to pasture may benefit lame cows by providing a softer and more comfortable lying and standing surface; however, the effects of this system on lameness have not yet been explored. We evaluated whether a 7-wk period of free-choice pasture access would improve lameness recovery and affect the lying behavior of lame dairy cows. Lactating Holstein cows, all clinically lame upon enrollment and housed inside a freestall barn, were pseudo-randomly allocated to 1 of 2 treatments (balancing for gait score, parity, and previous lameness history): free-choice access to pasture (n = 27; pasture) or indoor housing only (n = 27; indoor). Cows were gait scored weekly by an observer blind to treatment, using a 5-point numerical rating system (NRS 1 = sound, NRS 5 = severely lame), and hoof inspections were performed by professional trimmers at the start and end of the 7-wk period. Lying behavior was assessed using accelerometers. Cows were categorized as either having a sound period (NRS <2 over 2 consecutive weeks) or remaining lame. Cows spent, on average, 14.8 ± 10.0% (mean ± SD) of their total time on pasture, with much of this time spent outside at night. Over the 7-wk period, 42% of cows had at least one sound period (pasture: 55.6%, indoor: 26.9%), but this was more likely for cows with pasture access (odds ratio = 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 1.1-14.6%). Pasture cows also spent more total weeks sound compared with indoor cows (2.0 ± 0.34 vs. 0.81 ± 0.35 wk). Cows with pasture access lay down for less overall time than indoor cows (13.9 ± 0.29 vs. 12.7 ± 0.28 h/d) and spent more time standing on pasture (74%) than when indoors (47%). These results suggest that lame dairy cows will use pasture when provided with free-choice access, primarily at night, and that access to pasture aids in lameness recovery. We encourage future research to investigate longer-term effects on the recovery of hoof lesions and reoccurrence of lameness cases.

Do Walking Distance and Time Away from the Paddock Influence Daily Behaviour Patterns and Milk Yield of Grazing Dairy Cows?

In pasture-based systems, cows may spend several hours away from the paddock and may also walk several kilometres to meet daily milking requirements; this could lead cows to experience time constraints for grazing, ruminating and lying time in the paddock. This study investigated how walking distance and time spent away from the paddock affected daily behavioural patterns (i.e., grazing, ruminating and lying time) and milk yield. Dairy cows were managed in three rotationally grazed groups (n = 29 cows each) on the same farm and milked twice daily. A triaxial ear tag accelerometer on each cow recorded daily duration of grazing and ruminating, and a leg-based accelerometer recorded the daily lying time, for 13 days. GPS collars on four cows per group recorded the daily walking distance and total time away from the paddock for the group. A mixed repeated measures model tested how time off-paddock and walking distance affected the daily behavioural patterns; age, breed, milk yield and maximum ambient temperature were used as covariates with group as the observational unit. A second similar model tested how these factors affected milk yield. Walking distance and time spent away from the paddock were not correlated. When daily walking distance increased (to a maximum of 4 km/d), cows spent more time grazing and less time ruminating, but lying time was not affected. This result may, in part, be related to the greater energy expenditure demands for walking longer distances and milk production. When time away from the paddock increased (to a maximum of 4 h/d), cows spent less time lying, but grazing and ruminating times were not affected. Milk yield was not affected by walking distance, but one of the groups experienced a lower milk yield when time away from the paddock was increased. This result suggests that, for some cows, lying times may be shorter when experiencing a longer time away from the paddock, which may also affect milk yield. Overall, this study indicates that paddock behaviours are associated with walking distance to the milking parlour and time spent away from the paddock. Efforts to reduce walking distance and time spent away from the paddock are likely to provide cows with greater opportunity to engage in daily behaviours in the paddock that meet their needs and maintain their milk yield.

Developing of a model to predict lying behavior of dairy cows on silvopastoral system during the winter season

Lying behavior is an important indicator of the cows' welfare and health. In this study, we evaluate the effect of the physical environment on dairy cows' behaviors raised on a silvopastoral system through a predictive model. There was a difference (p<0.01) in soil surface temperature (SST) and black globe-humidity index (BGHI) between the shaded and sunny areas of the silvopastoral system. The BGHI was the variable most important to classify the cows' decision to seek shaded or sunny areas, while the soil surface temperature affected the choice for the area to perform the lying behaviors. In order to understand the influence of these parameters on cows' lying behavior, we developed another predictive model relating the SST and BGHI with cows lying at shaded and sunny areas. There was significance (p<0.01) for all model parameters. The odds of cows lying increased by approximately 2% with each degree of SST. In contrast, the probability of the cows lying in the shaded areas was 35% less than in sunny areas. The model developed in this study was efficient in identifying changes in the behavior of dairy cows in relation to physical environment. The BGHI influenced the areas used by cows to performing their standing behavior, while the areas used for lying behavior were influenced by the SST.

Behavioral changes in dairy cows with metritis in seasonal calving pasture-based dairy system

The aims of this study were to determine changes in lying and rumination behavior of transition dairy cows that were healthy or affected by metritis during the autumn and spring calving season in a temperate climate and determine the effect of some weather variables (precipitation and heat stress) on these behaviors. A total of 103 multiparous cows were monitored during the autumn (February to April) and spring calving season (July to October) from 10 d before to 10 d after calving. Cows were chosen retrospectively by diagnosis of metritis [autumn season, (n = 11); spring season, (n = 13)] or as healthy [autumn season, (n = 25); spring season, (n = 25)] based on vaginal discharge characteristics evaluated during the first 10 days in milk. In all animals, electronic data loggers recorded lying (Hobo Pendant G Acceleration, Onset Computer Corp.) and rumination behavior (Hi-Tag rumination monitoring system, SCR Engineers Ltd.) during the study period. We included precipitation level (>1 mm/d = with rain, and ≤1 mm/d = without rain) and heat stress [no heat stress = temperature-humidity index (THI) < 68 vs. heat stress = THI ≥ 68] as weather factors that may have affected lying and rumination behavior during the spring and autumn season in a temperate climate, respectively. Metritis during the spring calving season was associated only with longer lying times (≥1.3 h/d) after calving. During the autumn calving season cows with metritis lay down longer the day of calving (~2.1 h/d) and had fewer lying bouts of longer duration during the prepartum period compared with healthy cows. Rumination time did not differ by health status during the spring calving season, whereas cows with metritis during autumn ruminated 30, 21, and 24 min/d less than healthy cows during the prepartum, calving, and postpartum period, respectively. Precipitation and heat stress were associated with decreased daily lying and rumination time in sick cows. Our results indicate that differences in lying and rumination behavior depended on the metritis status, and support the idea that weather factors such as rainfall or heat stress requires to be considered in analyses of transition cow behavior in seasonal calving pasture-based dairy systems.

Preventive Hoof Trimming and Animal-Based Welfare Measures Influence the Time to First Lameness Event and Hoof Lesion Prevalence in Dairy Cows

Background: The objectives of this study were to, (1) investigate the impact of the Dutch five-step hoof trimming (HT) technique on time to lameness and hoof lesion prevalence in grazing (GR) and non-grazing (NGR) dairy cows, and (2) determine the association between potential benefits of HT and animal-based welfare measures during lactation. A total of 520 non-lame cows without hoof lesions from 5 dairy farms (GR = 2, NGR = 3) were enrolled at early (within 30 days in milk; DIM) and late lactation (above 200 DIM), and randomly allocated to either trimmed (HGR or HNGR) or control groups (CON-GR and CON-NGR). Locomotion scores, body condition, hock condition, leg hygiene, and hoof health were assessed at monthly intervals until the following 270 days in milk. The data were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, multivariable Cox, and logistic regression models. The overall incidence rate of lameness was 36.2 cases/100 cows/month, with corresponding rates of 27.4, 31.9, 48.4, and 45.8 cases/100 cows/month in HGR, HNGR, CON-GR, and CON-NGR, respectively. Time to first lameness event was significantly higher in HGR (mean ± S.E; 8.12 ± 0.15) compared to CON-GR (7.36 ± 0.26), and in HNGR (8.05 ± 0.16) compared to CON-NGR (7.39 ± 0.23). The prevalence of hoof lesions in the enrolled cows was 36.9%, with a higher occurrence in CON-GR (48.8%) than HGR (23.2%), and in CON-NGR (52.6%) compared to HNGR (32.2%). The majority of hoof lesions were non-infectious in grazing (HGR vs. CON-GR; 21.3 vs. 33.3%) and non-grazing herds (HNGR vs. CON-NGR; 25.0 vs. 40.4%). The risk of lameness was higher in underconditioned cows (Hazard ratio; HR = 3.1, 95% CI 1.2-7.4), presence of hoof lesion (HR = 33.1, 95% CI 17.6-62.5), and there was variation between farms. Aside HT, lower parity (OR = 0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.8), normal hock condition (OR = 0.06; 95% 0.01-0.29), and absence of overgrown hoof (OR = 0.4; 95% 0.2-0.7) were protective against non-infectious hoof lesions. Functional HT is beneficial as a lameness preventive strategy during lactation; however, ensuring older cows are in good body condition and free from hock injuries are equally important.

A Retrospective Case Study into the Effect of Hoof Lesions on the Lying Behaviour of Holstein-Friesian in a Loose-Housed System

Simple Summary

Lameness is a substantial welfare and economic problem in production animals. It can alter indicators of welfare such as lying time. Lying down is very important for cows, and they are highly motivated to perform this behaviour for 12 h or more per day. Conversely, cows that lie down too much or are uncomfortable standing may miss an opportunity to feed or drink if there is competition from sound (non-lame) cows. This study monitored different lesions that cause lameness in cattle through the use of accelerometers. The lesions included sole ulcers, sole haemorrhage, white line disease, interdigital hyperplasia and phelgmon, and digital dermatitis. Leg-based activity monitors that track the cows’ lying behaviour and mobility were used. From these data, it was found that cows with lesions on the foot spent longer lying down than those with no lesions, and cows with lesions in the soft tissue spent less time lying down than those with foot lesions. Trimming the cows’ feet altered the lying times of the cows with foot lesions and returned them closer to those of cows with no lesions.

Abstract

The association between hoof lesions and lying behaviour was assessed on a Holstein–Friesian dairy farm in England. Twenty-nine cows were included in the study. Cows with claw horn disruption lesions (CHDL, n = 8), soft tissue lesions (STL, n = 6), and no lesions (NL, n = 15) were assessed. Data were collected on parity, days in milk (DIM), and mobility scores. Cows were trimmed and treated, and lesions were recorded by a professional foot trimmer. Lying behaviour was assessed before and after claw trimming. The milking herd (n = 96) prevalence of lameness was 32.3%. Mobility was scored using the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) Mobility Scoring system. Mobility scores were significantly different across lesions groups (p = 0.022). CHDL cows had a mean mobility score of 2.0 ± 0.9 (mean ± SD), STL were scored 1.2 ± 1.3, and NL cows were 0.9 ± 0.7. CHDL were associated with longer lying times (15.00 ± 1.04 h/d; p = 0.0006) and shorter standing times (9.68 ± 2.38 h/d; p = 0.0351) compared with NL lying times (11.77 ± 1.67 h/d) and standing times (12.21 ± 1.67 h/d). STL cows spent significantly less time lying (11.30 ± 2.44; p = 0.0013) than CHDL but not NL cows. No significant differences were found with any of the other lying behaviours. After trimming, CHDL cows spent significantly less time lying down than before trimming (13.66 ± 0.98; p = 0.0125). Cows with NL spent significantly more time lying down (12.57 ± 1.90; p = 0.0398) and had a shorter minimum lying bout duration (0.17 ± 0.09; p = 0.0236) after trimming. In conclusion, lying behaviour in dairy cattle was impacted by type of hoof lesions and hoof trimming.

Keeping Dairy Cows for Longer: A Critical Literature Review on Dairy Cow Longevity in High Milk-Producing Countries

Simple Summary

The ability of farms to produce milk sustainably is closely related to dairy cow longevity, i.e., the length of productive life. However, longevity is a very complex feature that depends on all the aspects of the lifespan of a cow and there is no standard definition nor metric to measure it. Measuring longevity is important because it influences the profitability and the environmental impact of farms as well as the welfare of the animals. The objectives of this paper were to review metrics used to measure longevity and describe its status among high milk-producing countries. Increasing dairy cow longevity would imply that an animal has an early age at first calving and a long and profitable productive life. Combining age at first calving, length of productive life, and margin over all (available) costs provides a complete evaluation of longevity. This paper also shows that dairy cow longevity has decreased in most high milk-producing countries over time, which confirm the concerns voiced by the dairy industry and other stakeholders. Increasing cow longevity would reduce health costs and increase cow profitability while improving both animal welfare and quality of life, contributing to a more sustainable dairy industry.

Abstract

The ability of dairy farmers to keep their cows for longer could positively enhance the economic performance of the farms, reduce the environmental footprint of the milk industry, and overall help in justifying a sustainable use of animals for food production. However, there is little published on the current status of cow longevity and we hypothesized that a reason may be a lack of standardization and an over narrow focus of the longevity measure itself. The objectives of this critical literature review were: (1) to review metrics used to measure dairy cow longevity; (2) to describe the status of longevity in high milk-producing countries. Current metrics are limited to either the length of time the animal remains in the herd or if it is alive at a given time. To overcome such a limitation, dairy cow longevity should be defined as an animal having an early age at first calving and a long productive life spent in profitable milk production. Combining age at first calving, length of productive life, and margin over all costs would provide a more comprehensive evaluation of longevity by covering both early life conditions and the length of time the animal remains in the herd once it starts to contribute to the farm revenues, as well as the overall animal health and quality of life. This review confirms that dairy cow longevity has decreased in most high milk-producing countries over time and its relationship with milk yield is not straight forward. Increasing cow longevity by reducing involuntary culling would cut health costs, increase cow lifetime profitability, improve animal welfare, and could contribute towards a more sustainable dairy industry while optimizing dairy farmers’ efficiency in the overall use of resources available.

Influence of microclimate on dairy cows' behavior in three pasture systems during the winter in south Brazil

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of microclimate on thermal comfort and dairy cows' behavior in different pasture systems during the winter of a subtropical climate. The experiment was carried out in June and August 2020, covering the winter season in the southern hemisphere. Local microclimatic variables and cows' behaviors were compared in two conditions (shaded and sunny), in three pasture systems: silvopastoral system with disperse trees (SPSdisp), silvopastoral system with trees along the border fences (SPSfen), and treeless pasture (TLP). The black globe-humidity index (BGHI) was calculated to measure thermal comfort. During the afternoon the BGHI values were above animal thermal comfort at the sunny condition in the three pasture systems. The lowest average values (p < 0.05) of BGHI and soil surface temperature were recorded in the SPSdisp and SPSfen when compared to TLP. The highest value of soil surface temperature observed in the three systems were: in the sunny condition of the SPSdisp (24.7 °C) and SPSfen (23.1 °C), both between 13:00-14:55; in the TLP (28.5 °C) between 12:00-12:55. The time cows spent on each behavior was different (p < 0.05) among the pasture systems and conditions (shaded and sunny): in both SPSs, cows spent more time lying (resting and rumination) at the sunny condition between 12:00-12:50, and more time standing (resting and ruminating) at the shaded condition between 13:00-13:50. The frequency of drinking water was approximately 33% greater in the TLP than in the SPSs when the BGHI exceeded the comfort threshold (12:00-12:50). In the silvopastoral systems the cows had the option to compensate the heat loss caused by low temperatures staying at the sun; they could also use shade when motivated to do so, either to seek protection from the sun in the middle of the day or to rest.

A Review: Development of Computer Vision-Based Lameness Detection for Dairy Cows and Discussion of the Practical Applications

The computer vision technique has been rapidly adopted in cow lameness detection research due to its noncontact characteristic and moderate price. This paper attempted to summarize the research progress of computer vision in the detection of lameness. Computer vision lameness detection systems are not popular on farms, and the accuracy and applicability still need to be improved. This paper discusses the problems and development prospects of this technique from three aspects: detection methods, verification methods and application implementation. The paper aims to provide the reader with a summary of the literature and the latest advances in the field of computer vision detection of lameness in dairy cows.

Proximity Interactions in a Permanently Housed Dairy Herd: Network Structure, Consistency, and Individual Differences

Understanding the herd structure of housed dairy cows has the potential to reveal preferential interactions, detect changes in behavior indicative of illness, and optimize farm management regimes. This study investigated the structure and consistency of the proximity interaction network of a permanently housed commercial dairy herd throughout October 2014, using data collected from a wireless local positioning system. Herd-level networks were determined from sustained proximity interactions (pairs of cows continuously within three meters for 60 s or longer), and assessed for social differentiation, temporal stability, and the influence of individual-level characteristics such as lameness, parity, and days in milk. We determined the level of inter-individual variation in proximity interactions across the full barn housing, and for specific functional zones within it (feeding, non-feeding). The observed networks were highly connected and temporally varied, with significant preferential assortment, and inter-individual variation in daily interactions in the non-feeding zone. We found no clear social assortment by lameness, parity, or days in milk. Our study demonstrates the potential benefits of automated tracking technology to monitor the proximity interactions of individual animals within large, commercially relevant groups of livestock.

Invited review: Lying time and the welfare of dairy cows

Adequate time lying down is often considered an important aspect of dairy cow welfare. We examine what is known about cows' motivation to lie down and the consequences for health and other indicators of biological function when this behavior is thwarted. We review the environmental and animal-based factors that affect lying time in the context of animal welfare. Our objective is to review the research into the time that dairy cows spend lying down and to critically examine the evidence for the link with animal welfare. Cows can be highly motivated to lie down. They show rebound lying behavior after periods of forced standing and will sacrifice other activities, such as feeding, to lie down for an adequate amount of time. They will work, by pushing levers or weighted gates, to lie down and show possible indicators of frustration when lying behavior is thwarted. Some evidence suggests that risk of lameness is increased in environments that provide unfavorable conditions for cows to lie down and where cows are forced to stand. Lameness itself can result in longer lying times, whereas mastitis reduces it. Cow-based factors such as reproductive status, age, and milk production influence lying time, but the welfare implications of these differences are unknown. Lower lying times are reported in pasture-based systems, dry lots, and bedded packs (9 h/d) compared with tiestalls and freestalls (10 to 12 h/d) in cross-farm research. Unfavorable conditions, including too few lying stalls for the number of cows, hard or wet lying surfaces, inadequate bedding, stalls that are too small or poorly designed, heat, and rain all reduce lying time. Time constraints, such as feeding or milking, can influence lying time. However, more information is needed about the implications of mediating factors such as the effect of the standing surface (concrete, pasture, or other surfaces) and cow behavior while standing (e.g., being restrained, walking, grazing) to understand the effect of low lying times on animal welfare. Many factors contribute to the difficulty of finding a valid threshold for daily lying time to use in the assessment of animal welfare. Although higher lying times often correspond with cow comfort, and lower lying times are seen in unfavorable conditions, exceptions occur, namely when cows lie down for longer because of disease or when they spend more time standing because of estrus or parturition, or to engage in other behaviors. In conclusion, lying behavior is important to dairy cattle, but caution and a full understanding of the context and the character of the animals in question is needed before drawing firm conclusions about animal welfare from measures of lying time.

Impact of Nutrients on the Hoof Health in Cattle

Lameness is currently one of the most important and economically demanding diseases in cattle. It is manifested in a change in locomotion that is associated with lesions, especially the pelvic limbs. The disease of the hoof is painful, affecting the welfare of dairy cows. Important factors that influence the health of the limbs include nutrition, animal hygiene, stable technology, and genetic and breeding predispositions. Nutrition is one of the basic preventive factors affecting the quality and growth of the hoof horn, and the associated prevalence of hoof disease. The strength and structure of the hoof horn are affected by the composition of the feed ration (amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and toxic substances contaminating the feed ration, or arising in the feed ration as metabolites of fungi).

Grazing Cow Behavior's Association with Mild and Moderate Lameness

Accelerometer-based mobility scoring has focused on cow behaviors such as lying and walking. Accuracy levels as high as 91% have been previously reported. However, there has been limited replication of results. Here, measures previously identified as indicative of mobility, such as lying bouts and walking time, were examined. On a research farm and a commercial farm, 63 grazing cows' behavior was monitored in four trials (16, 16, 16, and 15 cows) using leg-worn accelerometers. Seventeen good mobility (score 0), 23 imperfect mobility (score 1), and 22 mildly impaired mobility (score 2) cows were monitored. Only modest associations with activity, standing, and lying events were found. Thus, behavior monitoring appears to be insufficient to discern mildly and moderately impaired mobility of grazing cows.

Welfare Assessment on Pasture: A Review on Animal-Based Measures for Ruminants

Simple Summary

Welfare assessment in outdoor and extensive systems has rarely been investigated, and little is known about the most appropriate indicators. This study aimed at compiling a list of animal-based measures of welfare for domestic ruminants raised on outdoor/extensive systems by means of a systematic review. Out of 810 papers retrieved, 52 matched the inclusion criteria and went through an in-depth analysis. According to available literature, 45 indicators have been used to assess welfare on pasture, often following different methodologies. Most indicators were measured by observers even if the use of sensor technologies increased in recent years. Considering the growing interest in pasture-based or grass-fed products, it is suggested that welfare assessment in outdoor/extensive farming systems is carried out by following shared methodologies in order to provide evidence of the higher animal welfare claims that these products often imply compared to indoor systems.

Abstract

Outdoor and extensive farming systems allow animals to behave in a natural way and are often perceived as welfare friendly. Nonetheless, the natural environment poses multiple challenges to the welfare of animals, sometimes hampering their capacity to cope. Welfare assessment in outdoor and extensive systems has been rarely investigated, and little is known about the most appropriate indicators. The aim of this review was to identify animal-based measures of welfare to apply in extensive and pasture-based systems in domestic ruminants. Through the use of a dedicated software for systematic reviews, 810 papers were screened and a total of 52 papers were retained for in-depth analysis. ABM resulting from these papers were initially divided according to the species (cattle and small ruminants, including sheep and goats) and then to four principles: comfort, behavior, feeding and health. The results showed that welfare data were collected applying different methodologies, with an increasing use of sensors in recent years. The need to herd and restrain animals for individual data collection is one of the major constraints to data collection in extensive farming systems. It is suggested that welfare assessment in outdoor/extensive farming systems is carried out by following shared procedures in order to provide evidence of the higher animal welfare claims that these products often imply compared to indoor systems.

Influence of Lameness on the Lying Behaviour of Zero-Grazed Lactating Jersey Dairy Cattle Housed in Straw Yards

Thirty-five lactating Jersey cows were recruited to the study. They were grouped according to locomotion score (LS), where low scores indicate normal gait. LS-1 (n = 12), LS-2 (n = 12) and LS-3 (n = 11) were used. Locomotion scores were balanced for parity and stage of lactation. Lying behaviour was recorded using IceTag™ data loggers attached to the cows for four consecutive days. The study animals remained in the straw based yards with grooved concrete flooring throughout the duration of the study. All data were normally distributed and assessed using a one-way ANOVA with a post hoc Tukey test. There were no statistically significant differences between locomotion score and the time spent lying, active and standing of zero-grazed lactating Jersey dairy cattle housed on straw yards. Lame cows (LS-3) had significantly shorter lying bouts than sound cows (LS-1) (34 min vs. 42 min, respectively). There has been limited research to date measuring the lying behaviour of cattle on straw and into the Jersey breed. The cows had longer than expected standing times and an increased frequency of lying bouts. This may have been attributed to the stocking density in which the cows were kept. We also reported a prevalence of lameness within the herd of 38%.