Yak milk-derived exosomal microRNAs regulate intestinal epithelial cells on proliferation in hypoxic environment

Therapeutic Potential of Bovine Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Milk is a fundamental component of the human diet, owing to its substantial nutritional content. In addition, milk contains nanoparticles called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which have indicated their potential beneficial roles such as cell-to-cell communication, disease biomarkers, and therapeutics agents. Amidst other types of EVs, milk EVs (MEVs) have their significance due to their high abundance, easy access, and stability in harsh environmental conditions, such as low pH in the gut. There have been plenty of studies conducted to evaluate the therapeutic potential of bovine MEVs over the past few years, and attention has been given to their engineering for drug delivery and targeted therapy. However, there is a gap between the experimental findings available and clinical trials due to the many challenges related to EV isolation, cargo, and the uniformity of the material. This review aims to provide a comprehensive comparison of various techniques for the isolation of MEVs and offers a summary of the therapeutic potential of bovine MEVs described over the last decade, analyzing potential challenges and further applications. Although a number of aspects still need to be further elucidated, the available data point to the role of MEVs as a potential candidate with therapeutics potential, and the supplementation of MEVs would pave the way to understanding their in-depth effects.

Goat milk exosomal microRNAs alleviate LPS-induced intestinal inflammation in mice

Intestinal inflammation is a common digestive system disease. Milk-derived exosomes can participate in intercellular communication and transport a variety of bioactive components, and the microRNAs (miRNAs) they carry play important roles in a variety of biological processes in the body. At present, the preventive effect and mechanism of action of goat milk exosomes and their derived miRNAs on intestinal inflammation are still unclear. In this study, the protective effect of goat milk exosomes on LPS-induced intestinal inflammation was investigated using mouse intestinal inflammation model and IEC-6 cell inflammation model. Small RNA sequencing was used to analyze the miRNA expression profile of goat milk exosomes. In this study, C-Exo and M-Exo alleviated intestinal inflammation by reducing the LPS-induced release of proinflammatory cytokines, inhibiting the increase in the NLRP3 protein and the activation of the TLR4/NFκB signaling pathway. C-Exo has a more significant inhibitory effect on them, and better therapeutic efficacy than M-Exo. Notably, the target genes of miRNAs in C-Exo and M-Exo were significantly enriched in immune-related pathways. Furthermore, their derived miR-26a-5p and miR-30a-5p were found to ameliorate the IEC-6 inflammatory response. These findings suggest that miRNAs in goat milk exosomes have the potential to attenuate LPS-induced intestinal inflammation.

Milk: A Natural Guardian for the Gut Barrier

The gut barrier plays an important role in health maintenance by preventing the invasion of dietary pathogens and toxins. Disruption of the gut barrier can cause severe intestinal inflammation. As a natural source, milk is enriched with many active constituents that contribute to numerous beneficial functions, including immune regulation. These components collectively serve as a shield for the gut barrier, protecting against various threats such as biological, chemical, mechanical, and immunological threats. This comprehensive review delves into the active ingredients in milk, encompassing casein, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, lactoferrin, the milk fat globular membrane, lactose, transforming growth factor, and glycopeptides. The primary focus is to elucidate their impact on the integrity and function of the gut barrier. Furthermore, the implications of different processing methods of dairy products on the gut barrier protection are discussed. In conclusion, this study aimed to underscore the vital role of milk and dairy products in sustaining gut barrier health, potentially contributing to broader perspectives in nutritional sciences and public health.

Milk-derived exosome nanovesicles: recent progress and daunting hurdles

Raw milk is the foundation of quality and safety in the dairy industry, and improving milk source management is the fundamental guarantee. Milk-derived exosomes (MDEs) are nanoscale information transfer molecules secreted by mammary cells with unique content and high stability, which can be used not only as potential markers to analyze key traits of lactation, reproduction, nutrition and health of animals, but also help farm managers to take timely interventions to improve animal welfare, milk quality, and functional traits. Our review first outlines the latest advances in MDEs isolation and purification, compositional analysis and characterization tools. We then provide a comprehensive summary of recent applications of MDEs liquid biopsy in breed selection, disease prevention and control, and feeding management. Finally, we evaluate the impact of processing on the stability of MDEs to offer guidance for dairy production and storage. The limitations and challenges in the development and use of MDEs markers are also discussed. As a noninvasive marker with high sensitivity and specificity, the MDEs-mediated assay technology is expected to be a powerful tool for measuring cow health and raw milk quality, enabling dynamic and precise regulation of dairy cows and full traceability of raw milk.

The Difference of Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles from Cow Colostrum and Mature Milk on miRNAs Expression and Protecting Intestinal Epithelial Cells against Lipopolysaccharide Damage

Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) play crucial roles in forming an essential barrier, providing host defense against pathogens and regulating nutrients absorption. Milk-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) within its miRNAs are capable of modulating the recipient cell function. However, the differences between colostrum and mature milk EVs and their biological function in attenuating intestinal epithelial cell injury remain poorly understood. Thus, we carried out the present study to characterize the difference between colostrum and mature milk-derived miRNA of EVs and the effect of colostrum and mature milk EVs on the proliferation, apoptosis, proinflammatory cytokines and intestinal epithelial barrier related genes in IEC-6 induced by LPS. Differential expression of 329 miRNAs was identified between colostrum and mature milk EVs, with 185 miRNAs being downregulated and 144 upregulated. In addition, colostrum contains a greater number and protein concentration of EVs than mature milk. Furthermore, compared to control, EVs derived from colostrum significantly inhibited the expression of apoptosis- (Bax, p53, and caspase-3) and proinflammatory-related genes (TNFα, IL6, and IL1β). EVs derived from mature milk did not affect expression of apoptosis-related genes (Bax, p53, bcl2, and caspase-3). The EVs derived from mature milk significantly inhibited the expression of proinflammatory-related genes (TNFα and IL6). Western blot analysis also indicated that colostrum and mature milk EVs significantly decreased the apoptosis of IEC-6 cells. The EdU assay results showed that colostrum and mature milk EVs significantly increased the proliferation of IEC-6 cells. The expression of intestinal barrier-related genes (TJP1, CLDN1, OCLN, CDX2, MUC2, and IGF1R) was significantly promoted in IEC-6 cells after colostrum and mature milk EVs addition. Importantly, colostrum and mature milk EVs significantly relieved the LPS-induced inhibition of proliferation and intestinal barrier-related genes expression and attenuated apoptosis and proinflammatory responses induced by LPS in IEC-6 cells. Flow cytometry and Western blot analysis also indicated that colostrum and mature milk EVs significantly affect the apoptosis of IEC-6 cells induced by LPS. The results also indicated that EVs derived from colostrum had better effects on inhibiting the apoptosis- and proinflammatory cytokines-related genes expression. However, the EVs derived from mature milk exhibited beneficial effects on intestinal epithelial barrier protection. The present study will provide a better understanding of the role of EVs derived from colostrum and milk in dairy cows with different responses in the regulation of intestinal cells function, and also presents new evidence for the change of EVs cargos during various stages of lactation.

Maternal fiber-rich diet promotes early-life intestinal development in offspring through milk-derived extracellular vesicles carrying miR-146a-5p

BACKGROUNDS

The intestinal development in early life is profoundly influenced by multiple biological components of breast milk, in which milk-derived extracellular vesicles (mEVs) contain a large amount of vertically transmitted signal from the mother. However, little is known about how maternal fiber-rich diet regulates offspring intestinal development by influencing the mEVs.

RESULTS

In this study, we found that maternal resistant starch (RS) consumption during late gestation and lactation improved the growth and intestinal health of offspring. The mEVs in breast milk are the primary factor driving these beneficial effects, especially enhancing intestinal cell proliferation and migration. To be specific, administration of mEVs after maternal RS intake enhanced intestinal cell proliferation and migration in vivo (performed in mice model and indicated by intestinal histological observation, EdU assay, and the quantification of cyclin proteins) and in vitro (indicated by CCK8, MTT, EdU, and wound healing experiments). Noteworthily, miR-146a-5p was found to be highly expressed in the mEVs from maternal RS group, which also promotes intestinal cell proliferation in cells and mice models. Mechanically, miR-146a-5p target to silence the expression of ubiquitin ligase 3 gene NEDD4L, thereby inhibiting DVL2 ubiquitination, activating the Wnt pathway, and promoting intestinal development.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrated the beneficial role of mEVs in the connection between maternal fiber rich diet and offspring intestinal growth. In addition, we identified a novel miRNA-146a-5p-NEDD4L-β-catenin/Wnt signaling axis in regulating early intestinal development. This work provided a new perspective for studying the influence of maternal diet on offspring development.

Tibetan Plateau yak milk: A comprehensive review of nutritional values, health benefits, and processing technology

Yak milk is a characteristic animal product of yaks in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Although yak milk production is low, it is richer in nutrients such as protein, fat, and lactose, a more comprehensive range of bioactive components, and unique microbial resources than Holstein cow milk. The plateau environment makes yak milk resistant to hypoxia, anti-fatigue, antioxidant, antibacterial, and relieves chronic diseases. In this paper, based on the systematic analysis of yak milk research results in the past 20 years using CiteSpace 6.1.R2, we reviewed yak lactation performance and nutritional efficacy of yak milk. This paper summarizes the improvement of traditional yak dairy processing technology, and also focuses on the microbial diversity of yak milk sources and their beneficial effects. The purpose of this review is to provide scientific support for the development of a quality yak milk industry on the Tibetan plateau.

Hypoxic papillary thyroid carcinoma cells-secreted exosomes deliver miR-221-3p to normoxic tumor cells to elicit a pro-tumoral effect by regulating the ZFAND5

Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) has seen a worldwide expansion in incidence in the past three decades. Tumor-derived exosomes have been associated with the metastasis of cancer cells and are present within the local hypoxic tumor microenvironment, where they mediate intercellular communication by transferring molecules including microRNAs (miRNAs) between cells. Although miRNAs have been shown to serve as non-invasive biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, the role of hypoxia-induced tumor-derived exosomes in PTC progression remains unclear. Herein, we investigated the differentially expressed miRNA expression profiles from GEO datasets (GSE191117 and GSE151180) by using the DESeq package in R and identified a novel role for miR-221-3p as an oncogene in PTC development. In vivo and in vitro loss and gain assays were used to clarify the mechanism of hypoxic PTC cells derived exosomal-miR-221-3p in PTC. miR-221-3p was upregulated in human PTC plasma exosomes, tissues and cell lines. We found that hypoxic PTC cells derived exosomal-miR-221-3p promoted normoxic PTC cells proliferation, migration, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in vitro, while inhibition of miR-221-3p limited PTC tumor growth in our PTC xenograft model in nude mice. We finally identified ZFAND5, to be a miR-221-3p target. Mechanistically, hypoxic PTC cell lines-derived exosomes carrying miR-221-3p promoted PTC tumorigenesis by regulating ZFAND5. Our findings further the understanding of the underlying mechanisms associated with PTC progression and identify exosomal-miR-221-3p as a potential biomarker for the diagnosis and prognosis of PTC patients. Our study also suggests that miR-221-3p inhibitors could be a potential treatment strategy for PTC.

Influence of Estrus on Dairy Cow Milk Exosomal miRNAs and Their Role in Hormone Secretion by Granulosa Cells

Estrus is crucial for cow fertility in modern dairy farms, but almost 50% of cows do not show the behavioral signs of estrus due to silent estrus and lack of suitable and high-accuracy methods to detect estrus. MiRNA and exosomes play essential roles in reproductive function and may be developed as novel biomarkers in estrus detection. Thus, we analyzed the miRNA expression patterns in milk exosomes during estrus and the effect of milk exosomes on hormone secretion in cultured bovine granulosa cells in vitro. We found that the number of exosomes and the exosome protein concentration in estrous cow milk were significantly lower than in non-estrous cow milk. Moreover, 133 differentially expressed exosomal miRNAs were identified in estrous cow milk vs. non-estrous cow milk. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that exosomal miRNAs were involved in reproduction and hormone-synthesis-related pathways, such as cholesterol metabolism, FoxO signaling pathway, Hippo signaling pathway, mTOR signaling pathway, steroid hormone biosynthesis, Wnt signaling pathway and GnRH signaling pathway. Consistent with the enrichment signaling pathways, exosomes derived from estrous and non-estrous cow milk both could promote the secretion of estradiol and progesterone in cultured bovine granulosa cells. Furthermore, genes related to hormonal synthesis (CYP19A1, CYP11A1, HSD3B1 and RUNX2) were up-regulated after exosome treatment, while exosomes inhibited the expression of StAR. Moreover, estrous and non-estrous cow-milk-derived exosomes both could increase the expression of bcl2 and decrease the expression of p53, and did not influence the expression of caspase-3. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate exosomal miRNA expression patterns during dairy cow estrus and the role of exosomes in hormone secretion by bovine granulosa cells. Our findings provide a theoretical basis for further investigating milk-derived exosomes and exosomal miRNA effects on ovary function and reproduction. Moreover, bovine milk exosomes may have effects on the ovaries of human consumers of pasteurized cow milk. These differential miRNAs might provide candidate biomarkers for the diagnosis of dairy cow estrus and will assist in developing new therapeutic targets for cow infertility.

Yak Milk: Nutritional Value, Functional Activity, and Current Applications

The yak is a special species that inhabits the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its surrounding areas. Its unique habitat gives yak milk certain distinct characteristics compared to regular cow milk. Yak milk not only has a high nutritional value but also holds potential benefits for human health. In recent years, there has been increasing research attention on yak milk. Studies have found that the bioactive components in yak milk have various functional properties, including antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, blood pressure-lowering, anti-fatigue, and constipation-relieving effects. However, more evidence is needed to confirm these functions in the human body. Therefore, by reviewing the current research status on the nutrition and functionality of yak milk, we aim to reveal its enormous potential as a source of nutritional and functional substances. This article primarily analyzed the nutritional composition of yak milk and the functional effects of its bioactive components, categorically elucidated the mechanisms behind its functional activities, and provided a brief introduction to related yak milk products. Our objective is to deepen people's understanding of yak milk and provide some references for its further development and utilization.

Multifunctional Milk-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles and Their Biomedical Applications

In recent years, small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have been regarded as the next generation of novel delivery systems after lipid nanoparticles because of their advantages and huge prospects in drug delivery. Studies have shown that sEVs are abundant in milk and therefore can be a large and economical source of sEVs. Natural milk-derived small extracellular vesicles (msEVs) have important functions such as immune regulation, anti-bacterial infection, anti-oxidative, etc., and play a beneficial role in human health at multiple levels, including intestinal health, bone/muscle metabolism, and microbiota regulation. In addition, because they can pass the gastrointestinal barrier and have low immunogenicity, good biocompatibility, and stability, msEVs are considered a crucial oral drug delivery vehicle. Moreover, msEVs can be further engineered for targeted delivery to prolong the circulation time or enhance local drug concentrations. However, msEVs separation and purification, complex contents, and quality control hinder their application in drug delivery. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the biogenesis and characteristics, isolation and purification, composition, loading methods, and function of msEVs, based on which their applications in biomedical fields are further explored.

Extracellular Vesicles from Animal Milk: Great Potentialities and Critical Issues

Other than representing the main source of nutrition for newborn mammals, milk delivers a sophisticated signaling system from mother to child that promotes postnatal health. The bioactive components transferred through the milk intake are important for the development of the newborn immune system and include oligosaccharides, lactoferrin, lysozyme, α-La, and immunoglobulins. In the last 15 years, a pivotal role in this mother-to-child exchange has been attributed to extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are micro- and nanosized structures enclosed in a phospholipidic double-layer membrane that are produced by all cell types and released in the extracellular environment, reaching both close and distant cells. EVs mediate the intercellular cross-talk from the producing to the receiving cell through the transfer of molecules contained within them such as proteins, antigens, lipids, metabolites, RNAs, and DNA fragments. The complex cargo can induce a wide range of functional modulations in the recipient cell (i.e., anti-inflammatory, immunomodulating, angiogenetic, and pro-regenerative modulations) depending on the type of producing cells and the stimuli that these cells receive. EVs can be recovered from every biological fluid, including blood, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, saliva, bile, and milk, which is one of the most promising scalable vesicle sources. This review aimed to present the state-of-the-art of animal-milk-derived EV (mEV) studies due to the exponential growth of this field. A focus on the beneficial potentialities for human health and the issues of studying vesicles from milk, particularly for the analytical methodologies applied, is reported.

Extracellular Vesicles in Veterinary Medicine

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membrane-bound vesicles involved in many physiological and pathological processes not only in humans but also in all the organisms of the eukaryotic and prokaryotic kingdoms. EV shedding constitutes a fundamental universal mechanism of intra-kingdom and inter-kingdom intercellular communication. A tremendous increase of interest in EVs has therefore grown in the last decades, mainly in humans, but progressively also in animals, parasites, and bacteria. With the present review, we aim to summarize the current status of the EV research on domestic and wild animals, analyzing the content of scientific literature, including approximately 220 papers published between 1984 and 2021. Critical aspects evidenced through the veterinarian EV literature are discussed. Then, specific subsections describe details regarding EVs in physiology and pathophysiology, as biomarkers, and in therapy and vaccines. Further, the wide area of research related to animal milk-derived EVs is also presented in brief. The numerous studies on EVs related to parasites and parasitic diseases are excluded, deserving further specific attention. The literature shows that EVs are becoming increasingly addressed in veterinary studies and standardization in protocols and procedures is mandatory, as in human research, to maximize the knowledge and the possibility to exploit these naturally produced nanoparticles.

Effects of Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles on the Colonic Transcriptome and Proteome in Murine Model

Evidence shows that effective nutritional intervention can prevent or mitigate the risk and morbidity of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Bovine milk extracellular vesicles (mEVs), a major bioactive constituent of milk, play an important role in maintaining intestinal health. The aims of this study were to assess the effects of mEV pre-supplementation on the colonic transcriptome and proteome in dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced acute colitis, in order to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of mEV protection against acute colitis. Our results revealed that dietary mEV supplementation alleviated the severity of acute colitis, as evidenced by the reduced disease activity index scores, histological damage, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. In addition, transcriptome profiling analysis found that oral mEVs significantly reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A and IL-33), chemokine ligands (CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL5, CCL3 and CCL11) and chemokine receptors (CXCR2 and CCR3). Moreover, oral mEVs up-regulated 109 proteins and down-regulated 150 proteins in the DSS-induced murine model, which were involved in modulating amino acid metabolism and lipid metabolism. Collectively, this study might provide new insights for identifying potential targets for the therapeutic effects of mEVs on colitis.

Role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes on intestinal barrier integrity and immunity in animals

The gastrointestinal tract of livestock and poultry is prone to challenge by feedborne antigens, pathogens, and other stress factors in the farm environment. Excessive physiological inflammation and oxidative stress that arises firstly disrupts the intestinal epithelial barrier followed by other components of the gastrointestinal tract. In the present review, the interrelationship between intestinal barrier inflammation and oxidative stress that contributes to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease was described. Further, the role of naturally existing immunomodulatory nutrients such as the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes in preventing intestinal barrier inflammation was discussed. Based on the existing evidence, the possible molecular mechanism of these bioactive nutrients in the intestinal barrier was outlined for application in animal diets.

Identification of Bovine miRNAs with the Potential to Affect Human Gene Expression

Milk and other products from large mammals have emerged during human evolution as an important source of nutrition. Recently, it has been recognized that exogenous miRNAs (mRNA inhibited RNA) contained in milk and other tissues of the mammalian body can enter the human body, which in turn have the ability to potentially regulate human metabolism by affecting gene expression. We studied for exogenous miRNAs from Bos taurus that are potentially contain miRNAs from milk and that could act postprandially as regulators of human gene expression. The interaction of 17,508 human genes with 1025 bta-miRNAs, including 245 raw milk miRNAs was studied. The milk bta-miR-151-5p, bta-miR-151-3p, bta-miRNA-320 each have 11 BSs (binding sites), and bta-miRNA-345-5p, bta-miRNA-614, bta-miRNA-1296b and bta-miRNA-149 has 12, 14, 15 and 26 BSs, respectively. The bta-miR-574-5p from cow’s milk had 209 human genes in mRNAs from one to 25 repeating BSs. We found 15 bta-miRNAs that have 100% complementarity to the mRNA of 13 human target genes. Another 12 miRNAs have BSs in the mRNA of 19 human genes with 98% complementarity. The bta-miR-11975, bta-miR-11976, and bta-miR-2885 BSs are located with the overlap of nucleotide sequences in the mRNA of human genes. Nucleotide sequences of BSs of these miRNAs in 5′UTR mRNA of human genes consisted of GCC repeats with a total length of 18 nucleotides (nt) in 18 genes, 21 nt in 11 genes, 24 nt in 14 genes, and 27–48 nt in nine genes. Nucleotide sequences of BSs of bta-miR-11975, bta-miR-11976, and bta-miR-2885 in CDS mRNA of human genes consisted of GCC repeats with a total length of 18 nt in 33 genes, 21 nt in 13 genes, 24 nt in nine genes, and 27–36 nt in 11 genes. These BSs encoded polyA or polyP peptides. In only one case, the polyR (SLC24A3 gene) was encoded. The possibility of regulating the expression of human genes by exogenous bovine miRNAs is discussed.

Exosome-Derived MicroRNAs of Human Milk and Their Effects on Infant Health and Development

Multiple biologically active components of human milk support infant growth, health and development. Milk provides a wide spectrum of mammary epithelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MEVs) for the infant. Although the whole spectrum of MEVs appears to be of functional importance for the growing infant, the majority of recent studies report on the MEV subfraction of milk exosomes (MEX) and their miRNA cargo, which are in the focus of this review. MEX and the dominant miRNA-148a play a key role in intestinal maturation, barrier function and suppression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling and may thus be helpful for the prevention and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis. MEX and their miRNAs reach the systemic circulation and may impact epigenetic programming of various organs including the liver, thymus, brain, pancreatic islets, beige, brown and white adipose tissue as well as bones. Translational evidence indicates that MEX and their miRNAs control the expression of global cellular regulators such as DNA methyltransferase 1-which is important for the up-regulation of developmental genes including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, α-synuclein and forkhead box P3-and receptor-interacting protein 140, which is important for the regulation of multiple nuclear receptors. MEX-derived miRNA-148a and miRNA-30b may stimulate the expression of uncoupling protein 1, the key inducer of thermogenesis converting white into beige/brown adipose tissue. MEX have to be considered as signalosomes derived from the maternal lactation genome emitted to promote growth, maturation, immunological and metabolic programming of the offspring. Deeper insights into milk's molecular biology allow the conclusion that infants are both "breast-fed" and "breast-programmed". In this regard, MEX miRNA-deficient artificial formula is not an adequate substitute for breastfeeding, the birthright of all mammals.

Lipidomic Profiling of Human Milk Derived Exosomes and Their Emerging Roles in the Prevention of Necrotizing Enterocolitis

SCOPE

Human milk can prevent the development of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Human milk is rich in cargo-carrying exosomes that participate in intercellular communication. This study investigated the effects of term and preterm human milk-derived exosomes, and elucidated their lipid expression profiles.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Milk from healthy mothers is collected who have delivered full-term or preterm infants, and exosomes are isolated and quantified. Administration of term and preterm milk exosomes significantly enhances epithelial proliferation and migration in vitro, and ameliorates the severity of NEC in vivo. A total of 395 lipids are identified in term and preterm human milk-derived exosomes. Bioinformatics analysis and western blotting reveal that top 50 lipids regulate intestinal epithelial cell function via the Extracellular-Signal-Regulated Kinase/Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (ERK/MAPK) pathway.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals for the first time the lipidomic complexities in exosomes derived from preterm and term milk. The results provide novel mechanistic insight on how human milk prevents the development of NEC.