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Turner A, Masters N, Pfau T, Hutchinson JR, Weller R. DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A STANDARDIZED SYSTEM FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF LOCOMOTOR HEALTH IN ELEPHANTS UNDER HUMAN CARE. J Zoo Wildl Med 2023; 54:529-537. [PMID: 37817618 DOI: 10.1638/2022-0110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Although lameness is a common problem in elephants (Asian elephant [Elephas maximus] and African elephants Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) under human care, there has not been a standardized lameness assessment system to date. This study developed and evaluated a standardized system for the assessment of locomotion in elephants under human care regardless of husbandry system. In total, 72 elephants out of a possible 73 in the United Kingdom and Ireland were filmed from behind, from in front, and from both sides. Using a questionnaire and a select panel of elephant specialists, a zoo veterinarian, and a locomotion expert, a numerical rating scoring (NRS) system was proposed. Locomotion was scored on a 4-point scale with numerical values 0-4 corresponding to specific criteria as follows: 0 = clinically sound, 1 = stiffness, 2 = abnormal tracking, and 4 = reluctance to bear weight. The intra- and interobserver repeatability of five veterinary surgeons using this system was determined and compared with a visual analog scale (VAS) expressed as a 100-mm line. Overall intraobserver reliability was moderate (Cohen's kappa [κ] = 0.676) and interobserver reliability was fair (κ = 0.37) for the presence of lameness. Interobserver agreement improved from the first scoring to second scoring from slight agreement to fair agreement for stiffness and reluctance to bear weight. Abnormal tracking had moderate intraobserver agreement for both scoring sessions. There were wide widths of agreement for the VAS interobserver (67 mm); however, they were narrower for the intraobserver (33 mm). The developed NRS can be used on freely moving elephants to evaluate elephant locomotion, regardless of husbandry methods, and has been shown to be more reliable than a VAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Turner
- Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom,
| | - Nic Masters
- Veterinary Department, ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, Dunstable, Bedfordshire, LU6 2LF, United Kingdom
| | - Thilo Pfau
- Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | | | - Renate Weller
- Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
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Medina-González P, Moreno K, Gómez M. Why Is the Grass the Best Surface to Prevent Lameness? Integrative Analysis of Functional Ranges as a Key for Dairy Cows’ Welfare. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12040496. [PMID: 35203204 PMCID: PMC8868409 DOI: 10.3390/ani12040496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Lameness is a highly prevalent clinical condition that causes movement disorders in dairy cows worldwide. With an estimated global population of one billion dairy cows, producing 522 million metric tons of milk per year, this problem affects food availability as well as the global economy. While grass is considered to be the best support surface for cattle, in many places it cannot be used, particularly when climate conditions are too harsh for grass to grow or be maintained. In this paper, we investigate whether grass is the best surface to prevent lameness. The answer to this question is fundamental to establishing better farming practices for cattle welfare. We built an integrative analysis of functional ranges to establish the minimum and maximum movement capacities that a cow has, according to the surfaces to which it is subjected in free housing systems. Using this analysis, we identified many aspects that make a grass surface the healthiest option for cattle. However, when grass is not available, this type of strategy can help to find the best characteristics for other possible surfaces. Our study applies movement analysis to one of the most critical problems in the world of livestock management and contributes towards finding the balance between animal welfare and production. Abstract Lameness is a painful clinical condition of the bovine locomotor system that results in alterations of movement. Together with mastitis and infertility, lameness is the main welfare, health, and production problem found in intensive dairy farms worldwide. The clinical assessment of lameness results in an imprecise diagnosis and delayed intervention. Hence, the current approach to the problem is palliative rather than preventive. The five main surfaces used in free housing systems in dairy farms are two natural (grass and sand) and three artificial (rubber, asphalt, and concrete). Each surface presents a different risk potential for lameness, with grass carrying the lowest threat. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the flooring type influences on cows’ movement capabilities, using all the available information relating to kinematics, kinetics, behavior, and posture in free-housed dairy cows. Inspired by a refurbished movement ecology concept, we conducted a literature review, taking into account kinematics, kinetics, behavior, and posture parameters by reference to the main surfaces used in free housing systems for dairy cows. We built an integrative analysis of functional ranges (IAFuR), which provides a combined welfare status diagram for the optimal (i.e., within the upper and lower limit) functional ranges for movement (i.e., posture, kinematics, and kinetics), navigation (i.e., behavior), and recovery capacities (i.e., metabolic cost). Our analysis confirms grass’ outstanding clinical performance, as well as for all of the movement parameters measured. Grass boosts pedal joint homeostasis; provides reliable, safe, and costless locomotion; promotes longer resting times. Sand is the best natural alternative surface, but it presents an elevated metabolic cost. Rubber is an acceptable artificial alternative surface, but it is important to consider the mechanical and design properties. Asphalt and concrete surfaces are the most harmful because of the high traffic abrasiveness and loading impact. Furthermore, IAFuR can be used to consider other qualitative and quantitative parameters and to provide recommendations on material properties and the design of any surface, so as to move towards a more grass-like feel. We also suggest the implementation of a decision-making pathway to facilitate the interpretation of movement data in a more comprehensive way, in order to promote consistent, adaptable, timely, and adequate management decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Medina-González
- Departamento de Kinesiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3480112, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5110566, Chile
- Correspondence: or (P.M.-G.); (K.M.); Tel.: +56-71-2413622 (P.M.-G.)
| | - Karen Moreno
- Laboratorio de Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5110566, Chile
- Correspondence: or (P.M.-G.); (K.M.); Tel.: +56-71-2413622 (P.M.-G.)
| | - Marcelo Gómez
- Instituto de Farmacología y Morfofisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5110566, Chile;
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Wheatley R, Buettel JC, Brook BW, Johnson CN, Wilson RP. Accidents alter animal fitness landscapes. Ecol Lett 2021; 24:920-934. [PMID: 33751743 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Animals alter their habitat use in response to the energetic demands of movement ('energy landscapes') and the risk of predation ('the landscape of fear'). Recent research suggests that animals also select habitats and move in ways that minimise their chance of temporarily losing control of movement and thereby suffering slips, falls, collisions or other accidents, particularly when the consequences are likely to be severe (resulting in injury or death). We propose that animals respond to the costs of an 'accident landscape' in conjunction with predation risk and energetic costs when deciding when, where, and how to move in their daily lives. We develop a novel theoretical framework describing how features of physical landscapes interact with animal size, morphology, and behaviour to affect the risk and severity of accidents, and predict how accident risk might interact with predation risk and energetic costs to dictate movement decisions across the physical landscape. Future research should focus on testing the hypotheses presented here for different real-world systems to gain insight into the relative importance of theorised effects in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wheatley
- School of Natural Sciences and the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Jessie C Buettel
- School of Natural Sciences and the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Barry W Brook
- School of Natural Sciences and the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Christopher N Johnson
- School of Natural Sciences and the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Rory P Wilson
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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Smid AMC, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. The Influence of Different Types of Outdoor Access on Dairy Cattle Behavior. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:257. [PMID: 32478110 PMCID: PMC7238891 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pasture access for dairy cows is highly valued both by cows and the public at large. When pasture access is not feasible, farmers can provide cows with alternative forms of outdoor access, such as an outdoor bedded pack, that may be easier to implement on some farms. We reviewed the literature on how lying, standing, walking, feeding, social, and estrus behaviors are influenced by pasture and other types of outdoor areas. Pasture allows the expression of grazing and can facilitate the expression of lying, standing, walking, and estrus behaviors. In addition, pasture can decrease the number of negative social interactions between cows, likely because more space per cow is provided than what is normally available indoors. The provision of soft flooring and an open space in outdoor bedded packs appears to provide some benefits for lying, standing, and walking behavior and may also have positive effects on social behavior, especially with larger space allowances. The effects of an outdoor bedded pack on estrus behavior are less well-documented, but the provision of a standing surface that provides better footing than typically available indoors may promote estrus behavior. Alternative outdoor areas assessed to date appear to be less attractive for cows than pasture, perhaps because these areas do not provide the opportunity to graze. We encourage future research to investigate the importance of grazing for dairy cows. The motivation of dairy cows to access alternative outdoor areas should also be investigated. As cow preference for the outdoors depends on many factors, providing cows a choice may be of particular importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marieke C Smid
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel M Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marina A G von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Artificial Grass as an Alternative Laneway Surface for Dairy Cows Walking to Pasture. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9110891. [PMID: 31683778 PMCID: PMC6912801 DOI: 10.3390/ani9110891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Softer surfaces can alleviate pressure on the claw during claw-surface contact, which is especially important for cows with painful claws. The benefits of softer barn floors are well known, but as cows often walk long distances twice daily between pasture and parlour, laneway surfaces are also important. In trial 1, we evaluated the gait of 69 cows on a standard (stone dust-over-gravel) laneway and an artificial grass laneway. Greater speed and longer strides were interpreted as indicators of a more suitable surface. Walking speed was greater on artificial grass than on the standard laneway (p = 0.001, median artificial grass: 1.46 m/s [interquartile range (IQR): 1.39-1.54], standard 1.40 m/s [IQR: 1.30-1.48]). No significant stride length increase was detected (p > 0.10, 158 cm [IQR:151-166] versus 155 cm [IQR:149-164]). In trial 2, we evaluated cow preference by giving 66 pairs of cows four consecutive choices between the standard laneway and artificial grass. Artificial grass was preferred overall (median stretches of artificial grass used out of a maximum of 4: 3 [IQR:2-4], p < 0.001). This preference was significantly (p = 0.001) stronger in lame cows (median: 3 [IQR:3-4]), than in sound ones (median: 2 [IQR:2-3]). Preference was also affected by the side of the laneway covered with artificial grass. Our results suggest that artificial grass improves the welfare of dairy cows walking to and from pasture, with lame cows benefiting to a greater extent.
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Sharma A, Phillips CJC. Avoidance Distance in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Parameters. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:E396. [PMID: 31261826 PMCID: PMC6680585 DOI: 10.3390/ani9070396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The human-animal relationship is an important welfare parameter in animal welfare assessment in cows, and the avoidance distance of cows to a stranger at the feed bunk is measured to assess this relationship. The assessment of the human-animal relationship in cow shelters in India, where old, unproductive, and abandoned cows are sheltered, is important to explore the welfare of cows in these shelters. The cows observed were of indigenous Indian breeds and breeds which were crosses between indigenous breeds and pure bred exotic cows. The human-animal contact in this context is of particular interest for welfare assessment as traditional Indian farming and sheltering systems involves regular close human-animal contact. In a cross-sectional study across 6 states, 54 cow shelters were visited and 30 cows in each shelter were randomly selected (1620 in total) for the assessment of avoidance distance and other cow-based (27 parameters) and resource-based (15 parameters) welfare parameters. Avoidance distance was assessed 1 h after morning feeding. Cows standing at the feeding manger were approached from the front at a rate of one step/s, starting 2 m away from the manger. The distance between the assessor's hand and the cow's head was estimated at the moment the cow moved away and turned its head, using a four-point scale (0, touched; 1, 0-50 cm; 2, 51-100 cm; and 3, >100 cm). The majority, 52%, of the cows allowed touch by the assessor and another 32% allowed approach within 50 cm, demonstrating tolerance, or even solicitation of close human-animal relationships by the cows. Avoidance distance increased with the proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs, tarsal joint swellings, and hair loss, and the extent of rumen fill. There was also evidence of reduced avoidance distances in cows with high levels of body condition score (BCS), dirty flanks, tarsal joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, diarrhoea, hampered respiration, lesions on the body due to traumatic injuries, and body coat condition, probably as a result of moving difficulties. The avoidance distance was thus related to the health and welfare of the cows, providing a vital insight into the factors affecting human-animal contact in the shelters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Sharma
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton 4343, Australia.
| | - Clive J C Phillips
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton 4343, Australia.
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7
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Sharma A, Phillips CJC. Lameness in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Cow and Shelter Attributes. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9060360. [PMID: 31208119 PMCID: PMC6616525 DOI: 10.3390/ani9060360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The sheltering of cows in shelters is a traditional practice in India. Old, abandoned and unproductive dairy cows are housed in shelters as cow slaughter is not legally permitted in most states. The welfare assessment of these old, abandoned, infertile, unproductive and rescued cows was carried out based on the measurement of cow-based and resource-based welfare parameters. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore the prevalence of lameness in these sheltered cows and the risk factors associated with it. Fifty-four shelters in six states of India were visited and 1620 cows were clinically examined for lameness and measurements of other animal and resource-based welfare parameters. The prevalence of lameness in these shelters was less than that recorded in dairy cows in conventional Indian farming systems. Lameness was associated with several cow factors: inadequate body conformation, lesions on the hock and carpal joints, dirty udders, overgrown claws and diarrhea. There was evidence of an association with an absence of bedding and a steep gradient of the floor. Improvement in the feeding practices, attention towards cleanliness, and improvements in shelter flooring may reduce the prevalence of lameness and improve cow welfare in the shelters. Abstract The sheltering of old, unproductive and abandoned cows in traditional cow shelters, known as gaushalas, has been practiced in India since ancient times. Cows are kept in these shelters until they die of natural causes. The welfare of the cows in these shelters was assessed through a cross-sectional study of 54 cow shelters in six states of India. A total of 1620 cows were examined to assess the prevalence of lameness in these cows, and the associated risk factors for lameness were identified through the measurement of animal-based and resource-based welfare indicators. The overall lameness prevalence was 4.2%. The majority (86%) had mild to moderate hock joint swellings but no or only mild carpal joint injuries. Approximately one-half had mild to moderate hock joint hair loss and most were free of hock joint ulcerations. Claw overgrowth was present in almost one half of the cows. Lameness prevalence was positively correlated with coat dirtiness, hock and carpal joint lesions, diarrhea and claw overgrowth scores. In a multivariate analysis, lameness prevalence increased as the Body Condition Score (BCS) decreased and was associated with increased udder dirtiness, the ulceration of the hock joint, carpal joint injuries and claw overgrowth. Resource-based indicators measured at the shelter level suggested that an absence of bedding in the sheds and an increase in the gradient of the shed flooring increased lameness. Addressing the principle risk factors identified for lameness in the sheltered cows (low body condition, dirty udders, lesions on the hock and carpal joints, overgrown claws, and a steep floor gradient) may help to reduce this serious animal welfare problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Sharma
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton QLD 4343, Australia.
| | - Clive J C Phillips
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton QLD 4343, Australia.
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Sharma A, Umapathy G, Kumar V, Phillips CJC. Hair Cortisol in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Indicators. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9050248. [PMID: 31100915 PMCID: PMC6562612 DOI: 10.3390/ani9050248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
India, the country with the largest population of dairy cows in the world, has a policy of retiring abandoned and non-lactating cows in shelters, but the level of provision for their welfare in these shelters is unclear. Cows in 54 shelters across India were assessed for historic evidence of physiological stress, through determination of hair cortisol in 540 samples from 10 cows in each shelter by enzyme immunoassay. Animal-based and shelter resource-based welfare measures were recorded and correlations with the hair cortisol investigated by multivariable analysis. High hair cortisol concentrations were associated with dung in the lying area of the cowshed, a low dry bulb temperature there and little cow access to yards, as shelter-based variables. At a cow level, high hair cortisol concentrations were associated with dirty flanks, hock joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, body lesions, dehydration, an empty rumen, old age, and low levels of body hair loss. Hair cortisol level promises to be an effective biomarker of stress in cows when conducting studies under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Sharma
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton QLD 4343, Australia.
| | - Govindhaswamy Umapathy
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India.
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India.
| | - Clive J C Phillips
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton QLD 4343, Australia.
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Sharma A, Kennedy U, Schuetze C, Phillips CJC. The Welfare of Cows in Indian Shelters. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9040172. [PMID: 30995810 PMCID: PMC6523919 DOI: 10.3390/ani9040172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The welfare of cows in traditional cow shelters (gaushalas), was assessed on the basis of the measurement of animal- and resource-based welfare parameters and description of the herd characteristics by the manager. A description of the condition of the cows and the resources provided to them is provided in this cross-sectional study. Small space allowance per cow, non-uniform flooring, little freedom of movement, and lack of access to pastures were the key welfare issues observed in the study. Very few cows were recorded as lame, but about half had carpal joint lesions and slightly less had lesions from interacting with shelter furniture. This study will inform the stakeholders about the concept of welfare auditing of the cow shelters, for better welfare and management of the cows in the shelters. Abstract Cow shelters (gaushalas) are unique traditional institutions in India, where aged, infertile, diseased, rescued, and abandoned cows are sheltered for the rest of their life, until they die of natural causes. These institutions owe their existence to the reverence for the cow as a holy mother goddess for Hindus, the majority religion in India. There is a religious and legal prohibition on cow slaughter in most Indian states. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the welfare of cows in these shelters, which included the development of a welfare assessment protocol, based on direct animal-based measurements, indirect resource-based assessments, and description of the herd characteristics by the manager. A total of 54 cow shelters in 6 states of India were studied and 1620 animals were clinically examined, based on 37 health, welfare, and behavior parameters. Thirty resources provided to the animals, including housing, flooring, feeding, watering, ease of movement, cleanliness of facilities, lighting, temperature, humidity, and noise levels in the sheds were measured. The study showed that the shelters contained mostly non-lactating cows, with a mean age of 11 years. The primary welfare problems appeared to be different to those in Western countries, as the major issues found in the shelters were facility-related—the low space allowance per cow, poor quality of the floors, little freedom of movement, and a lack of pasture grazing. Very few cows were recorded as lame, but about one half had carpal joint hair loss and swelling, and slightly less had lesions from interacting with shelter furniture. Some shelters also had compromised biosecurity and risks of zoonosis. These issues need to be addressed to aid in ensuring the acceptability of these institutions to the public. This welfare assessment protocol aims to address the welfare issues and problems in the shelters, by providing feedback for improvement to the stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Sharma
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Australia 4343, Australia.
| | | | - Catherine Schuetze
- Faculty of Arts and Social Science, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, 4343 Australia.
| | - Clive J C Phillips
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Australia 4343, Australia.
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Sharma A, Kennedy U, Phillips C. A Novel Method of Assessing Floor Friction in Cowsheds and Its Association with Cow Health. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9040120. [PMID: 30934770 PMCID: PMC6523172 DOI: 10.3390/ani9040120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The objective of this paper was to test a simple method of measuring the extent of the slipperiness of different types of floors in cow shelters. Excessively slippery floors, which are less abrasive, are known to reduce a cow’s ability to walk, lie down, and get up without slipping and causing injury to herself. A moderate level of friction between the cows’ hooves and the floor is required for cow comfort and prevention of foot disease and injuries. This study developed a rapid method that welfare assessors can use to measure the slipperiness of floors in cowsheds. The data obtained were then validated by comparing them with the various animal-based and resource-based welfare parameters assessed in each shelter. The analyses done in this study show that there is a link between excessively slippery floors and various parameters such as frequency of cleaning the floors, the gradient of floors, wounds on the bodies and joints of the cows, and the presence of dirty hind limbs. All of these ultimately affect the welfare of cows in shelters. These results suggest that this simple measure of floor friction could be useful in cow welfare assessments. Further work on the repeatability of this method is recommended. Abstract Measurement of friction of cowshed floors to determine slipperiness potential is important for cow comfort. Existing methods require elaborate equipment and procedures. A quick method for assessment of friction characteristics is proposed. Friction was measured in 54 cattle housing and yard facilities with earth, brick, concrete, and stone floors, and its association with cattle health parameters was investigated through assessment of 30 animals per facility. A 156 g cuboidal wooden block attached to a spring balance was pulled over 3 m, and the coefficient of friction was recorded as the force required to move the block at a constant speed. The coefficient of friction ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 and was lowest for concrete and highest for earth floors. A multivariate analysis found that cows were standing more and could be more easily approached when they were on floors with high friction levels. The proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs declined with increasing friction of the floor, probably reflecting the fact that they felt more confident to stand rather than lie on high friction floors. This simple measure of frictional characteristics of cattle floors offers promise to be included in welfare measures as an indicator of cow welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Sharma
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus 4343, Australia.
| | - Uttara Kennedy
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus 4343, Australia.
| | - Clive Phillips
- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus 4343, Australia.
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Randall L, Green M, Huxley J. Use of statistical modelling to investigate the pathogenesis of claw horn disruption lesions in dairy cattle. Vet J 2018; 238:41-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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12
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Telezhenko E, Magnusson M, Bergsten C. Gait of dairy cows on floors with different slipperiness. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100:6494-6503. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-12208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Earley B, McNamara JD, Jerrams SJ, O’Riordan EG. Effect of concrete slats, three mat types and out-wintering pads on performance and welfare of finishing beef steers. Acta Vet Scand 2017; 59:34. [PMID: 28558798 PMCID: PMC5450343 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-017-0302-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The objective was to investigate the effect of placing mats on concrete slatted floors on performance, behaviour, hoof condition, dirt scores, physiological and immunological variables of beef steers, and to compare responses with animals on out-wintering pads. Continental crossbred beef steers [n = 360; mean (±SD) initial live weight 539 kg (42.2)] were blocked by breed and live weight and randomly assigned to one of five treatments; (1) Concrete slats alone, (2) Mat 1 (Natural Rubber structure) (Durapak Rubber Products), (3) Mat 2 (Natural rubber structure) (EasyFix), (4) Mat 3 (modified ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) foam structure) and (5) Out-wintering pads (OWP’s). Results Animals on the OWPs had a greater (P < 0.05) live weight gain (P < 0.05) compared with the slat and Mat 2 treatments: results for Mat 1 and Mat 3 were the same (P > 0.05) as the other treatments. Animals on the OWPs had reduced lying percentage time compared with all the other treatments. Dry matter (DM) intake was greater for animals on the OWPs compared with all the other treatments. Carcass weight, kill out proportion, carcass fat score, carcass composition score, FCR and physiological responses were similar (P > 0.05) among treatments. No incidence of laminitis was observed among treatments. The number of hoof lesions was greater on all mat types (P < 0.05) compared with concrete slats and OWP treatments. Dirt scores were greater (P < 0.05) for animals on OWPs when measured on days 42, 84, 105, 126 and 150 compared with animals on slats. Conclusions Under the conditions adopted for the present study, there was no evidence to suggest that animals housed on bare concrete slats were disadvantaged in respect of animal welfare compared with animals housed on other floor types. It is concluded that the welfare of steers was not adversely affected by slats compared with different mat types or OWPs.
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Zhang Q, Xu K, Ding X. Investigation of feet functions of large ruminants with a decoupled model of equivalent mechanism. Biol Open 2017; 6:407-414. [PMID: 28412713 PMCID: PMC5399556 DOI: 10.1242/bio.023630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cloven hooves of ruminants adapt to diverse terrain, provide propulsive force and support the whole body during movement in natural environments. To reveal how the feet ensure terrain adaptability by choosing the proper configurations and terrain conditions, we model the feet of ruminants as an equivalent mechanism with flexion-extension and lateral movement decoupled. The upper part of the equivalent mechanism can flex and extend, while the lower part performs the lateral movement. Combination of the two parts can adapt to longitudinal slope (anterior-posterior) and transverse slope (medial-lateral), respectively. When one of two digits closes laterally, the workspace of the other decreases. The distal interdigital ligament between two digits limits their motion by elastic force and stores energy during movement. Differences in elastic energy variation of the ligament on different transverse slopes are characterized based on the configurations of two digits and the elastic energy between them. If the upper one of two symmetric digits is fixed, the foot landing on the grade surface (2°) shows greater capacity for absorbing energy; otherwise, level ground is the best choice for ruminants. As for the asymmetric digits, longer lateral digits enhance the optimal adaptive lateral angle. The asymmetry predisposes the feet to damage on the hard ground, which indicates soft ground is more suitable. Summary: This study shows that level and soft grounds are best for symmetric and asymmetric digits, respectively, as revealed by kinematic analysis using a decoupled equivalent mechanism of the foot of ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Zhang
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Kun Xu
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China .,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Xilun Ding
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
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Franco-Gendron N, Bergeron R, Curilla W, Conte S, DeVries T, Vasseur E. Investigation of dairy cattle ease of movement on new methyl methacrylate resin aggregate floorings. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:8231-8240. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Ranjbar S, Rabiee A, Gunn A, House J. Identifying risk factors associated with lameness in pasture-based dairy herds. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:7495-7505. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abeni F, Bertoni G. Main causes of poor welfare in intensively reared dairy cows. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Environmental and cow-related factors affect cow locomotion and can cause misclassification in lameness detection systems. Animal 2015; 10:1533-41. [PMID: 26584890 DOI: 10.1017/s175173111500244x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
To tackle the high prevalence of lameness, techniques to monitor cow locomotion are being developed in order to detect changes in cows' locomotion due to lameness. Obviously, in such lameness detection systems, alerts should only respond to locomotion changes that are related to lameness. However, other environmental or cow factors can contribute to locomotion changes not related to lameness and hence, might cause false alerts. In this study the effects of wet surfaces, dark environment, age, production level, lactation and gestation stage on cow locomotion were investigated. Data was collected at Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research research farm (Melle, Belgium) during a 5-month period. The gait variables of 30 non-lame and healthy Holstein cows were automatically measured every day. In dark environments and on wet walking surfaces cows took shorter, more asymmetrical strides with less step overlap. In general, older cows had a more asymmetrical gait and they walked slower with more abduction. Lactation stage or gestation stage also showed significant association with asymmetrical and shorter gait and less step overlap probably due to the heavy calf in the uterus. Next, two lameness detection algorithms were developed to investigate the added value of environmental and cow data into detection models. One algorithm solely used locomotion variables and a second algorithm used the same locomotion variables and additional environmental and cow data. In the latter algorithm only age and lactation stage together with the locomotion variables were withheld during model building. When comparing the sensitivity for the detection of non-lame cows, sensitivity increased by 10% when the cow data was added in the algorithm (sensitivity was 70% and 80% for the first and second algorithm, respectively). Hence, the number of false alerts for lame cows that were actually non-lame, decreased. This pilot study shows that using knowledge on influencing factors on cow locomotion will help in reducing the number of false alerts for lameness detection systems under development. However, further research is necessary in order to better understand these and many other possible influencing factors (e.g. trimming, conformation) of non-lame and hence 'normal' locomotion in cows.
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Van Nuffel A, Zwertvaegher I, Pluym L, Van Weyenberg S, Thorup VM, Pastell M, Sonck B, Saeys W. Lameness Detection in Dairy Cows: Part 1. How to Distinguish between Non-Lame and Lame Cows Based on Differences in Locomotion or Behavior. Animals (Basel) 2015; 5:838-60. [PMID: 26479389 PMCID: PMC4598709 DOI: 10.3390/ani5030387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Scoring cattle for lameness based on changes in locomotion or behavior is essential for farmers to find and treat their lame animals. This review discusses the normal locomotion of cows in order to define abnormal locomotion due to lameness. It furthermore provides an overview of various relevant visual locomotion scoring systems that are currently being used as well as practical considerations when assessing lameness on a commercial farm. Abstract Due to its detrimental effect on cow welfare, health and production, lameness in dairy cows has received quite a lot of attention in the last few decades—not only in terms of prevention and treatment of lameness but also in terms of detection, as early treatment might decrease the number of severely lame cows in the herds as well as decrease the direct and indirect costs associated with lameness cases. Generally, lame cows are detected by the herdsman, hoof trimmer or veterinarian based on abnormal locomotion, abnormal behavior or the presence of hoof lesions during routine trimming. In the scientific literature, several guidelines are proposed to detect lame cows based on visual interpretation of the locomotion of individual cows (i.e., locomotion scoring systems). Researchers and the industry have focused on automating such observations to support the farmer in finding the lame cows in their herds, but until now, such automated systems have rarely been used in commercial herds. This review starts with the description of normal locomotion of cows in order to define ‘abnormal’ locomotion caused by lameness. Cow locomotion (gait and posture) and behavioral features that change when a cow becomes lame are described and linked to the existing visual scoring systems. In addition, the lack of information of normal cow gait and a clear description of ‘abnormal’ gait are discussed. Finally, the different set-ups used during locomotion scoring and their influence on the resulting locomotion scores are evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Van Nuffel
- Technology and Food Science Unit–Precision Livestock Farming; The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester van Gansberghelaan 115 bus 1, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; E-Mails: (I.Z.); (L.P.); (S.V.W.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
| | - Ingrid Zwertvaegher
- Technology and Food Science Unit–Precision Livestock Farming; The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester van Gansberghelaan 115 bus 1, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; E-Mails: (I.Z.); (L.P.); (S.V.W.)
| | - Liesbet Pluym
- Technology and Food Science Unit–Precision Livestock Farming; The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester van Gansberghelaan 115 bus 1, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; E-Mails: (I.Z.); (L.P.); (S.V.W.)
| | - Stephanie Van Weyenberg
- Technology and Food Science Unit–Precision Livestock Farming; The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Burgemeester van Gansberghelaan 115 bus 1, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; E-Mails: (I.Z.); (L.P.); (S.V.W.)
| | - Vivi M. Thorup
- INRA, UMR 791 Systemic Modelling of Ruminant Nutrition, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France; E-Mail:
- AgroParisTech, UMR 791 Systemic Modelling of Ruminant Nutrition, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France
| | - Matti Pastell
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Koetilantie 5, 00790 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mail:
| | - Bart Sonck
- Animal Sciences Unit, The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium; E-Mail:
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Wouter Saeys
- Division Mechatronics, Biostatistics and Sensors (MeBioS), Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30 bus 2456, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium; E-Mail:
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Kara NK, Galic A, Koyuncu M. Comparison of milk yield and animal health in Turkish farms with differing stall types and resting surfaces. ASIAN-AUSTRALASIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2015; 28:268-72. [PMID: 25557824 PMCID: PMC4283173 DOI: 10.5713/ajas.14.0366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The current study was carried out to determine the influence of different resting surfaces and stall types on milk yield and animal health. Study was carried out in Bursa that is one of the most important cities of Turkey in terms of dairy production. Effects of resting surfaces and stall types on milk yield were found to be important. Also influence of different resting surfaces and stall types on lactation length was examined and found that rubber mats were different from the two other options. Relationships between different resting surfaces or stall types and health problems were examined and connection between stall type and repeat breeding (RB), dystocia, retained placenta and a connection between resting surface types and RB and clinical mastitis were found to be important. Considering their economic reflections, it can be said that results are quite important to the Turkish dairy industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurcan Karslioglu Kara
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya 07058, Turkey
| | - Askin Galic
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya 07058, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Koyuncu
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya 07058, Turkey
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Chapinal N, Barrientos AK, von Keyserlingk MAG, Galo E, Weary DM. Herd-level risk factors for lameness in freestall farms in the northeastern United States and California. J Dairy Sci 2012; 96:318-28. [PMID: 23141819 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-5940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The objective was to investigate the association between herd-level management and facility design factors and the prevalence of lameness in high-producing dairy cows in freestall herds in the northeastern United States (NE; Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania) and California (CA). Housing and management measures such as pen space, stall design, bedding type, and milking routine were collected for the high-producing pen in 40 farms in NE and 39 farms in CA. All cows in the pen were gait scored using a 1-to-5 scale and classified as clinically lame (score ≥3) or severely lame (score ≥4). Measures associated with the (logit-transformed) proportion of clinically or severely lame cows at the univariable level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. In NE, lameness increased on farms that used sawdust bedding [odds ratio (OR)=1.71; 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.06-2.76] and decreased with herd size (OR=0.94; CI=0.90-0.97, for a 100-cow increase), use of deep bedding (OR=0.48; CI=0.29-0.79), and access to pasture (OR=0.52; CI=0.32-0.85). The multivariable model included herd size, access to pasture, and provision of deep bedding, and explained 50% of the variation in clinical lameness. Severe lameness increased with the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (OR=1.15; CI=1.06-1.25, for a 10% increase) and with use of sawdust bedding (OR=2.13; CI=1.31-3.47), and decreased with use of deep bedding (OR=0.31; CI=0.19-0.50), sand bedding (OR=0.32; CI=0.19-0.53), herd size (OR=0.93; CI=-0.89-0.97, for a 100-cow increase), and rearing replacement heifers on site (OR=0.57; CI=0.32-0.99). The multivariable model included deep bedding and herd size, and explained 59% of the variation of severe lameness. In CA, clinical lameness increased with the percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination (OR=1.15; CI=1.05-1.26, for a 10% increase), and decreased with herd size (OR=0.96; CI=0.94-0.99, for a 100-cow increase), presence of rubber in the alley to the milking parlor (OR=0.46; CI=0.28-0.76), distance of the neck rail from the rear curb (OR=0.97; CI=0.95-0.99, for a 1-cm increase), water space per cow (OR=0.92; CI=0.85-0.99, for a 1-cm increase), and increased frequency of footbaths per week (OR=0.90; CI=081-0.99, for a 1-unit increase). The multivariable model included herd size, percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination, and presence of rubber in the alley to the milking parlor, and explained 44% of the variation of clinical lameness. Severe lameness increased with the percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination (OR=1.23; CI=1.06-1.42, for a 10% increase) and decreased with frequency of manure removal in the pen per day (OR=0.72; CI=0.53-0.97, for a 1-unit increase). The final model included both variables and explained 28% of the variation in severe lameness. In conclusion, changes in housing and management may help decrease the prevalence of lameness on dairy farms, but key risk factors vary across regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Chapinal
- Animal Welfare Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
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Kara NK, Galic A, Koyuncu M. Effects of stall type and bedding materials on lameness and hygiene score and effect of lameness on some reproductive problems in dairy cattle. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2011.607890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nurcan Karslioglu Kara
- a Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture , Uludag University , Bursa, Turkey
| | - Askin Galic
- b Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture , Akdeniz University , Antalya, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Koyuncu
- a Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture , Uludag University , Bursa, Turkey
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Clark AJ, Higham TE. Slipping, sliding and stability: locomotor strategies for overcoming low-friction surfaces. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 214:1369-78. [PMID: 21430214 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.051136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Legged terrestrial animals must avoid falling while negotiating unexpected perturbations inherent to their structurally complex environments. Among humans, fatal and nonfatal injuries frequently result from slip-induced falls precipitated by sudden unexpected encounters with low-friction surfaces. Although studies using walking human models have identified some causes of falls and mechanisms underlying slip prevention, it is unclear whether these apply to various locomotor speeds and other species. We used high-speed video and inverse dynamics to investigate the locomotor biomechanics of helmeted guinea fowl traversing slippery surfaces at variable running speeds (1.3-3.6 m s(-1)). Falls were circumvented when limb contact angles exceeded 70 deg, though lower angles were tolerated at faster running speeds (>3.0 m s(-1)). These prerequisites permitted a forward shift of the body's center of mass over the limb's base of support, which kept slip distances below 10 cm (the threshold distance for falls) and maximized the vertical ground reaction forces, thus facilitating limb retraction and the conclusion of the stance phase. These postural control strategies for slip avoidance parallel those in humans, demonstrating the applicability of these strategies across locomotor gaits and the potential for guinea fowl as an insightful model for invasive approaches to understanding limb neuromuscular control on slippery surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Clark
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 132 Long Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA.
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Static and dynamic mechanical properties of cattle horns. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2010.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Impact of lameness on gait characteristics and lying behaviour of zero grazed dairy cattle in early lactation. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Krebs N, Berry S, Tucker C. Restless behavior increases over time, but not with compressibility of the flooring surface, during forced standing at the feed bunk. J Dairy Sci 2011; 94:97-105. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2010-3089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Li BW, Zhao HP, Feng XQ, Guo WW, Shan SC. Experimental study on the mechanical properties of the horn sheaths from cattle. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:479-86. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.035428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Bovine horn is composed of a sheath of keratin overlying a bony core. Previous studies of the bovine horn sheath have focused mainly on its morphology and compositions. In the present paper, we performed a series of uniaxial tension, three-point bending, and fracture tests to investigate the structural and mechanical properties of the horn sheaths from subadult cattle, Bos taurus. The effects of hydration on the mechanical properties were examined and their variations along the longitudinal direction of the horn sheath were addressed. Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture surfaces showed that the horn sheath has a layered structure and, more interestingly, the laminae have a rippled appearance. The Young's modulus and tensile strength increase from 850 MPa and 40 MPa at 19% water content to 2.3 GPa and 154 MPa at 0% water content, respectively. The Poisson's ratio of the horn sheath was about 0.38. The critical stress intensity factor was about 4.76 MPa m1/2 at an intermediate hydration (8% water content), greater than that at 0% water content (3.86 MPa m1/2) and 19% water content (2.56 MPa m1/2). The bending properties of the samples varied along the length of the horn. The mean flexural moduli of the specimens in the distal, middle and proximal parts were about 6.26 GPa, 5.93 GPa and 4.98 GPa, respectively; whereas the mean yield strength in the distal segment was about 152.4 MPa, distinctly higher than that in the middle (135.7 MPa) and proximal parts (116.4 MPa). This study deepens our understanding of the relationships among optimal structure, property and function of cattle horn sheaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. W. Li
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - H. P. Zhao
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - X. Q. Feng
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - W. W. Guo
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - S. C. Shan
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Walker A, Pfau T, Channon A, Wilson A. Assessment of dairy cow locomotion in a commercial farm setting: The effects of walking speed on ground reaction forces and temporal and linear stride characteristics. Res Vet Sci 2010; 88:179-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2009] [Revised: 04/16/2009] [Accepted: 05/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Williams SB, Usherwood JR, Jespers K, Channon AJ, Wilson AM. Exploring the mechanical basis for acceleration: pelvic limb locomotor function during accelerations in racing greyhounds (Canis familiaris). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 212:550-65. [PMID: 19181903 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.018093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Animals in their natural environments are confronted with a regular need to perform rapid accelerations (for example when escaping from predators or chasing prey). Such acceleration requires net positive mechanical work to be performed on the centre of mass by skeletal muscle. Here we determined how pelvic limb joints contribute to the mechanical work and power that are required for acceleration in galloping quadrupeds. In addition, we considered what, if any, biomechanical strategies exist to enable effective acceleration to be achieved. Simultaneous kinematic and kinetic data were collected for racing greyhounds undergoing a range of low to high accelerations. From these data, joint moments and joint powers were calculated for individual hindlimb joints. In addition, the mean effective mechanical advantage (EMA) of the limb and the ;gear ratio' of each joint throughout stance were calculated. Greatest increases in joint work and power with acceleration appeared at the hip and hock joints, particularly in the lead limb. Largest increases in absolute positive joint work occurred at the hip, consistent with the hypothesis that quadrupeds power locomotion by torque about the hip. In addition, hindlimb EMA decreased substantially with increased acceleration - a potential strategy to increase stance time and thus ground impulses for a given peak force. This mechanism may also increase the mechanical advantage for applying the horizontal forces necessary for acceleration.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Williams
- Department of Veterinary Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
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Lammers AR. Mechanics of generating friction during locomotion on rough and smooth arboreal trackways. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:1163-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.027938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Traveling on arboreal substrates is common among most small mammals living anywhere vegetation grows. Because arboreal supports vary considerably in surface texture, animals must be able to adjust their locomotor biomechanics to remain stable on such supports. I examined how gray short-tailed opossums(Monodelphis domestica), which are generalized marsupials living on or near the ground, adjust to travel on rough and smooth 2 cm-diameter arboreal trackways. Limb contact position was determined viahigh-speed videography, and substrate reaction force was measured by an instrumented section of each branch trackway. Normal and shear forces were calculated from substrate reaction force and limb contact position around the branch trackways. Normal force is greater in forelimbs, probably because of the forelimb's greater weight support role. Shear force was identical between limb pairs, most likely because of interactions between vertical force, limb placement, mediolateral force, and torque. The opossums adjusted to the smooth trackway mainly by reducing speed, changing footfall patterns and increasing normal force. I predict that arboreal specialists will show less change in performance between rough and smooth arboreal trackways because of their greater ability to grasp or maintain contact with arboreal substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Lammers
- Department of Health Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
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Rutherford KM, Langford FM, Jack MC, Sherwood L, Lawrence AB, Haskell MJ. Lameness prevalence and risk factors in organic and non-organic dairy herds in the United Kingdom. Vet J 2009; 180:95-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Revised: 03/10/2008] [Accepted: 03/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Cook NB, Nordlund KV. The influence of the environment on dairy cow behavior, claw health and herd lameness dynamics. Vet J 2009; 179:360-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2007] [Revised: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 09/15/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Hinterhofer C, Haider H, Apprich V, Ferguson J, Collins S, Stanek C. Development of a twenty-one-component finite element distal hind limb model: Stress and strain in bovine digit structures as a result of loading on different floorings. J Dairy Sci 2009; 92:972-9. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008-1605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Haufe HC, Gygax L, Steiner B, Friedli K, Stauffacher M, Wechsler B. Influence of floor type in the walking area of cubicle housing systems on the behaviour of dairy cows. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the effect that relocation to a new free stall barn had on locomotion and cleanliness of two breeds of dairy cows. The original facility before relocation had cows housed in an 8-row free stall barn. Cows were allocated in a new 4-row free stall facility: cows of two breeds (n=22 Holsteins and 22 Jerseys) were intermixed in the northwest section. Locomotion (scale 1-5) and cleanliness were scored (scale 1-4). Holsteins and Jerseys had no difference in locomotion score throughout 12 weeks following relocation. A lactation number by date interaction showed cows in third and greater lactations had significantly higher locomotion scores (more lameness) by day 86. Locomotion scores increased across breeds during the 86-d observation period, suggesting cows became lamer. Jerseys had cleaner lower legs than Holsteins (2.9+/-0.1 v. 3.5+/-0.1, respectively). Lactation number affected lower leg cleanliness, with scores decreasing as lactation number increased (3.4 v. 3.3 v. 2.9+/-0.10 for first, second and third and greater lactations, respectively; P<0.01). All cows were cleaner (lower scores) after relocation, suggesting that the new facility improved hygiene.
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Kapatkin AS, Arbittier G, Kass PH, Gilley RS, Smith GK. Kinetic gait analysis of healthy dogs on two different surfaces. Vet Surg 2007; 36:605-8. [PMID: 17686136 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-950x.2007.00311.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2 different, commonly used surfaces with different coefficients of friction on ground reaction forces in normal dogs. STUDY DESIGN Prospective, observational, single cross-over study. ANIMALS Dogs (n=10) with no gait abnormalities. METHODS Dogs were acclimated to the force plate and 5 valid trials for each dog and each limb were recorded. Velocity and acceleration were tightly controlled. Each dog was tested on both surfaces sequentially in different sequences. Data analysis was done on peak vertical force, peak impulse, breaking and propulsion peak forces and impulses. Three-way repeated measures analysis of variance was used to separately evaluate the effect of floor type on force plate measures in fore and hind limbs, while controlling for side (left versus right) and experimental replicate. P-values<.05 were considered significant. Mean force and 95% confidence interval for the 6 variables analyzed for all limbs on each surface were calculated. RESULTS There were no significant differences in ground reaction forces between the linoleum and the carpet surface for thoracic or pelvic limbs for all gait variables measured. There were no significant differences between each individual gait trial per dog between the right and left thoracic limbs trials nor differences between the right and left pelvic limb trials. CONCLUSIONS Normal dogs had no change in their ground reaction forces on linoleum and carpet surfaces. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Kinetic results from multi-center or comparative trials will not be affected by use of either linoleum or carpet surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S Kapatkin
- Department of Clinical Studies-PHL, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Barker ZE, Amory JR, Wright JL, Blowey RW, Green LE. Management Factors Associated with Impaired Locomotion in Dairy Cows in England and Wales. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:3270-7. [PMID: 17582111 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Forty-nine farms in England and Wales were visited on 4 occasions between February 2003 and March 2004. A total of 21,693 scores of locomotion were assigned to 7,722 cattle. Locomotion was assessed on a 3-point scale by observing the posture of a cow's back while standing and walking (1 = sound, 2 = not sound, 3 = lame). Data on measurable factors potentially associated with locomotion were collected from all farms using direct observations of the farm environment and a comprehensive farmer interview. The mean herd locomotion score was 1.77 +/- 0.02. There was no significant difference in mean herd locomotion scores between 5 herds housed in straw yards (1.72 +/- 0.02) and 44 herds housed in free stalls (1.78 +/- 0.02), possibly because of lack of power. A GLM was produced using data from the 44 herds housed in free stalls, with the mean farm locomotion score of all cows examined on all 4 visits as the outcome variable. Factors associated with an elevated locomotion score were dry cows kept in straw yards compared with free stalls (increase in locomotion score = 0.06 +/- 0.03), pregnant heifers kept with milking cows in winter compared with being kept with dry cows (increase in locomotion score = 0.09 +/- 0.03), aisle widths of < 3 m compared with widths of > or = 3 m (increase in locomotion score = 0.06 +/- 0.02), a curb height of < or = 15 cm compared with a height of > 15 cm (increase in locomotion score = 0.07 +/- 0.03), routine trimming of hooves of all cows by a hoof trimmer or by the farmer compared with no routine hoof trimming (increase in locomotion score = 0.18 +/- 0.04 and 0.13 +/- 0.03 respectively), feeding corn silage to milking cows compared with feeding other forage types (increase in locomotion score = 0.10 +/- 0.03), and the use of automatic scrapers in the free-stall barn compared with tractor scrapers (increase in locomotion score = 0.10 +/- 0.03). These variables were correlated with many other management variables. The use of automatic scrapers was correlated with the use of sawdust on rubber mats in free stalls. Curb height was negatively correlated with increasing distance of the neck rail from the front (head end) of the free stall. These putative risk factors support the hypothesis that locomotion score is linked to management factors; in particular, the combination of sawdust on rubber mats with automatic scrapers was associated with elevated locomotion scores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z E Barker
- Ecology & Epidemiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom.
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Flower FC, de Passillé AM, Weary DM, Sanderson DJ, Rushen J. Softer, Higher-Friction Flooring Improves Gait of Cows With and Without Sole Ulcers. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:1235-42. [PMID: 17297100 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(07)71612-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We studied dairy cows (n = 30) walking on concrete and on a soft, high-friction composite rubber surface to examine how flooring influenced gait and how this differed for cows with hoof lesions. Cows had hooves trimmed 9 wk after the trial and were classified as either with or without sole ulcers. Video recordings of the cows while walking were digitized using motion analysis software to calculate stride variables (length, height, overlap, duration, proportion of triple support, and speed). Gait was scored by a subjective scoring system (1 = sound to 5 = severely lame) and by a continuous visual analog scale for each of 7 gait attributes. Cows with sole ulcers walking on a composite rubber surface had longer strides (156.9 +/- 2.6 vs. 149.6 +/- 2.6 cm), higher stride heights (9.7 +/- 0.3 vs. 8.8 +/- 0.3 cm), more stride overlap (0.4 +/- 2.0 vs. -4.3 +/- 2.0 cm), shorter periods of triple support (3 legs in ground contact; 68.6 +/- 2.0 vs. 73.8 +/- 2.0%), walked faster (1.22 +/- 0.04 vs. 1.17 +/- 0.04 m/s) and had lower overall gait scores (2.9 +/- 0.1 vs. 3.1 +/- 0.1), better tracking-up (19 +/- 2 vs. 24 +/- 2), better joint flexion (29 +/- 2 vs. 33 +/- 2), more symmetric steps (31 +/- 3 vs. 36 +/- 3), and less reluctance to bear weight on their legs (12 +/- 2 vs. 16 +/- 2) compared with walking on concrete. Similar results were found for cows without sole ulcers. Most of the subjective gait measures could distinguish between cows with and without sole ulcers, but this was not the case for kinematic measures other than stride height. Cows with higher gait scores (more severe lameness) showed the greatest improvement in stride length (r = -0.51), triple support (r = 0.59), swing duration (r = -0.44), overall gait score (r = 0.46), and reluctance to bear weight (r = 0.66) when walking on the rubber surface compared with cows with lower gait scores. These results indicate that rubber flooring provides a more secure footing and is more comfortable to walk on, especially for lame cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Flower
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Food and Land Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4.
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Abstract
This study tested whether providing cows a 4-wk period on pasture would improve gait and change lying behavior. Eighteen groups, each of 4 lactating Holstein cows initially housed in a freestall barn, were assigned to either continued housing in the same freestall barn, or moved to pasture to provide changes in both physical environment and diet. To assess lameness, gait scores (1 to 5) were recorded weekly for 4 wk. Gait improved by an average of 0.22 units/wk for those cows kept on pasture. We also recorded 4 specific gait attributes (head bob, back arch, tracking up, and reluctance to bear weight evenly on all 4 hooves), and found that the latter 2 attributes also improved during the pasture period. Improved gait for cows on pasture was not because of increased lying times. Cows on pasture actually spent less time lying down than cows kept indoors (10.9 vs. 12.3 h/d), although this lying time was spread over a larger number of bouts (15.3 vs. 12.2 bouts). Cows housed on pasture also lost more weight and produced less milk relative to cows in freestalls, likely because of reduced nutrient intake. These results indicate that a period on pasture can be used to help lame cattle recover probably because pasture provides a more comfortable surface upon which cows stand, helping them to recover from hoof and leg injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Hernandez-Mendo
- Especialidad de Ganadería, Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillos, Texcoco, Mexico 56230
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Determination of coefficient of friction between the equine foot and different ground surfaces: an in vitro study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1017/s1478061506617234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSlippery surfaces are a continuous concern in equine veterinary practice during both treatment and orthopaedic work-ups, especially when horses have to trot on circles. Sliding of the equine foot on the ground with the potential of injury is prevented if the horizontally acting accelerating or decelerating forces on the foot do not exceed maximal friction. Friction can be calculated and therefore anticipated if the coefficient of friction (μ) between the foot of the horse and the particular ground surface is known. Friction between shod and unshod cadaver equine hooves and different ground surfaces (concrete, tarmac and rubber) was determined by pulling the hooves horizontally in a uniform motion. Horizontal forces (Fh) were measured on a force plate and with a portable digital electronic force meter. The coefficient of friction (μ) was calculated as the quotient between Fh and the gravity force (N) of the object, hence: μ = Fh /N. This study has shown that the coefficient of friction between equine hooves and a specific ground surface can be determined using a portable digital force meter or a force plate. Friction significantly depended not only on the type of surface but also on shoeing of the equine foot. Bare feet showed more friction with the hard surfaces (bricks and tarmac), the shod feet showing more friction with the rubber surfaces. Coefficients of friction could be used to estimate the possibility of injuries occurring in the equine industry during exercise and/or lameness or pre-purchase examinations.
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Abstract
We examined the effects of roughness and degree of compressibility of flooring on the locomotion of dairy cows. We observed 16 cows walking down specially constructed walkways with materials that differed in surface roughness and degree of compressibility. Use of a commercially available soft rubber flooring material decreased slipping, number of strides, and time to traverse the corridor. These effects were most apparent at difficult sections of the corridor, such as at the start, at a right-angle turn, and across a gutter. Covering the walkway with a thin layer of slurry increased frequency of slipping, number of strides, and time taken to traverse the walkway. Effects of adding slurry were not overcome by increasing surface roughness or compressibility. Placing more compressible materials under a slip-resistant material reduced the time and number of steps needed to traverse the corridor but did not reduce slips, and the effects on cow locomotion varied nonlinearly with the degree of compressibility of the floor. Use of commercially available rubber floors improved cow locomotion compared with concrete floors. However, standard engineering measures of the floor properties may not predict effects of the floor on cow behavior well. Increasing compressibility of the flooring on which cows walk, independently of the roughness of the surface, can improve cow locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rushen
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada, V0M 1A0.
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Franck A, De Belie N. Concrete floor-bovine claw contact pressures related to floor roughness and deformation of the claw. J Dairy Sci 2006; 89:2952-64. [PMID: 16840610 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72567-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The intention of this research was to study the impact of concrete floor surface roughness on a bovine claw model and to assess the deformation of the bovine claw model under load. The pressure distribution between the floor and the claw is the key method in this research. Monitoring foot-to-ground pressure distributions may provide insight into the relation between high local pressures and foot lesions. Concrete floor samples were made with 5 different finishing methods. Their roughness was determined by measuring the heights of the "peaks and the valleys" of the surface with a high-precision laser beam. The smoothest surface was the sample finished with a metal float (surface roughness R(a) = 0.062 mm) and the roughest surface occurred with the heavily sandblasted sample (surface roughness R(a) = 0.488 mm). The roughness of the concrete floor samples was related to the mean and peak contact pressures that can occur in a laboratory test bench between floor and bovine claw. It was found that the claw itself has approximately 2 times more effect on these contact pressures than the surface roughness. Peak pressures found were high enough (up to 111 MPa) to cause damage to the bovine claw sole horn. The strains occurring in the horn wall were measured and related to the floor-finishing method and the load. Strain gauge measurements indicated that it is difficult to predict what kind of deformation of the claw wall will occur at a certain location. Different strains will occur for different floor-finishing methods. The corresponding stresses in the horn wall did not exceed the yield stress (14 and 11 MPa for dorsal and abaxial wall horn, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Franck
- Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
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Tucker CB, Weary DM, de Passillé AM, Campbell B, Rushen J. Flooring in Front of the Feed Bunk Affects Feeding Behavior and Use of Freestalls by Dairy Cows. J Dairy Sci 2006; 89:2065-71. [PMID: 16702270 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72274-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In 2 experiments we assessed how preferences, time budgets, and feeding behavior of dairy cows change in response to flooring surfaces in front of the feed bunk. In Experiment 1, 12 nonlactating dairy cattle were individually housed with access to 2 standing platforms filled with either concrete or sawdust. In Experiment 2, 24 nonlactating dairy cattle were given access to either concrete or Animat rubber flooring in front of the feed bunk. In Experiment 1, cows preferred the sawdust to the concrete flooring. In both experiments, cows provided with a softer floor in front of the feed bunk spent more time standing near the feed bunk without eating (Experiment 1: 67 vs. 40 min/d on sawdust vs. concrete, respectively, SEM = 5.6 min/d; Experiment 2: 176 vs. 115 min/d on Animat vs. concrete, respectively, SEM = 20.5 min/d) compared with when they were kept on concrete. The increased time spent at the feed bunk was due to a combination of more frequent eating and standing bouts, indicating that cows were more willing to move on nonconcrete flooring. Total time spent eating was significantly greater on the softer floor in Experiment 2, but not in Experiment 1 (Exp. 1: 289 vs. 275 min/d on sawdust and concrete, respectively, SEM = 7.3 min/d; Exp. 2: 330 vs. 289 min/d on Animat and concrete, respectively, SEM = 15.4), although feed intake was increased on the sawdust treatment in Experiment 1. Cows spent significantly more time lying in the feed alley when the flooring was rubber (219 vs. 53 min/d on Animat and concrete, SEM = 53.6 min/d), perhaps because the lying area in Experiment 2 was inadequate. In conclusion, cows prefer to stand on softer flooring in front of the feed bunk, and are more willing to move on and spend more time standing in front of the feed bunk when provided with softer flooring. These results indicate that cows find softer flooring surfaces more comfortable to stand on than concrete, and highlight the importance of evaluating the comfort of the entire facility.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Tucker
- Animal Welfare Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4.
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Abstract
We studied cows with (n = 6) and without (n = 26) sole ulcers before and after milking to explore how milking influences dairy cattle gait and how this differs for cows with hoof injuries. Video recordings of cows were digitized using motion-analysis software to calculate stride variables for each hoof. Gait was scored using a 1-to-5 numerical rating system (1 = sound, 5 = severely lame) and a continuous 100-unit visual analog scale of gait attributes (back arch, head bob, tracking-up, and reluctance to bear weight). For cows with and without sole ulcers, differences in gait before and after milking were evident; after milking, all cows had significantly longer strides (123.3 vs. 133.5 +/- 2.0 cm, respectively), higher stride height (8.3 vs. 8.9 +/- 0.1 cm), shorter stride durations (1.49 vs. 1.41 +/- 0.03 s), walked faster (0.85 vs. 0.97 +/- 0.03 m/s), and had shorter periods of triple support (3 legs in ground contact; 80.0 vs. 71.7 +/- 2.0%). Tracking-up and reluctance to bear weight improved after milking (20 vs. 16 +/- 2; 20 vs. 15 +/- 1, respectively), but numerical rating scores and back arch did not. Cows with sole ulcers walked differently than cows without for all measures, except swing duration, both before and after milking. Interactions between hoof health and milking were found for swing duration and head bob but when tested separately, the only effect was that cows without sole ulcers had longer swing durations before milking (0.45 vs. 0.44 +/- 0.01 s, respectively). Gait differences were probably due to udder distention and motivation to return to the home pen. Our results suggest that the most suitable time to assess lameness is after milking when differences between cows with and without ulcers are most evident.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Flower
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Food and Land Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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Blob RW, Rai R, Julius ML, Schoenfuss HL. Functional diversity in extreme environments: effects of locomotor style and substrate texture on the waterfall-climbing performance of Hawaiian gobiid fishes. J Zool (1987) 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2005.00034.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
To explore how hoof pathologies affect dairy cattle gait, we studied cows with sole hemorrhages (n = 14), sole ulcers (n = 7), and those with no visible injuries (n = 17). Overall gait assessments, scored from video using a 1 to 5 numerical rating system (1 = sound, 5 = severely lame) and a continuous 100-unit visual analog scale, found cows having sole ulcers had poorer gait than healthy cows (mean +/- SEM: 4.0 +/- 0.13 vs. 3.1 +/- 0.08, and 59 +/- 3 vs. 46 +/- 2, respectively). Six gait attributes (back arch, head bob, tracking-up, joint flexion, asymmetric gait, and reluctance to bear weight) were also assessed using continuous 100-unit scales. Compared with healthy cows, those having sole ulcers walked with a more pronounced back arch (12 +/- 3 vs. 28 +/- 4), more jerky head movement (2 +/- 2 vs. 10 +/- 3), shortened strides (7 +/- 2 vs. 26 +/- 4), and more uneven weighting among the limbs (16 +/- 2 vs. 32 +/- 3). Of all measures, the numerical rating system most effectively discriminated healthy cows from those with sole ulcers (R2 = 0.73), classifying 92% of animals correctly. No differences were detected among cows with and without sole hemorrhages. Intra- and interobserver reliabilities were reasonable for all measures (R2 > or = 0.64) except joint flexion and asymmetric gait. In summary, subjective assessments of dairy cattle gait provide valid and reliable approaches to identifying cattle with sole ulcers.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Flower
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Food and Land Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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Hinterhofer C, Ferguson JC, Apprich V, Haider H, Stanek C. Slatted Floors and Solid Floors: Stress and Strain on the Bovine Hoof Capsule Analyzed in Finite Element Analysis. J Dairy Sci 2006; 89:155-62. [PMID: 16357278 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72079-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An established finite element model of a bovine claw was used to compare mechanical stress levels in a loaded model claw on different types of flooring. The following situations were compared: a claw standing on a solid floor, a claw standing on the edge of a short tie stand, and claws standing on slatted floors with slats of 28 and 40 mm (wide) running parallel and perpendicular to the claw axis. Finite element analysis allowed visualization of stress peaks seen predominantly in the weight-bearing border of the dorsal abaxial wall and of the bulbar region and in the proximal axial wall. Maximum stress values of 13 MPa were found in the model claw loaded on the solid floor and values of 18 to 22 MPa were seen in the model claw loaded on the edge of the solid floor. On slatted floors, stresses increased in the situation in which the claw was not supported under the abaxial wall. Comparison between the other slatted floors showed little difference in amounts of mechanical stress. A clear distinction was detected between the solid floor with full claw contact and the slatted floors. From the point of view of the mechanical stress seen in finite element analysis, a large contact area between claw and floor, as seen in the solid surface floor, is preferable. When use of slatted floors is unavoidable, direction of the slats should run perpendicular to the direction of the walkway to prevent even more mechanical impact in certain footing situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Hinterhofer
- Clinic for Orthopaedics in Ungulates, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
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