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Manso T, Gallardo B, Lavín P, Ruiz Mantecón Á, Cejudo C, Gómez-Cortés P, de la Fuente MÁ. Enrichment of Ewe’s Milk with Dietary n-3 Fatty Acids from Palm, Linseed and Algae Oils in Isoenergetic Rations. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12131716. [PMID: 35804615 PMCID: PMC9264961 DOI: 10.3390/ani12131716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing the levels of n-3 fatty acids (FA) in dairy products is an important goal in terms of enhancing the nutritional value of these foods for the consumer. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of linseed and algae oil supplements in ovine isoenergetic diets on healthy milk fatty acid composition, mainly n-3. Seventy-two Churra dairy ewes were divided and randomly assigned to four experimental treatments for 6 weeks. The treatments consisted of a TMR (40:60 forage:concentrate ratio) that varied according to the inclusion of different types of fat (23 g/100 g TMR): hydrogenated palm oil (control), linseed oil (LO), calcium soap of linseed oil (CaS-LO) and marine algae oil (AO). The most effective lipid supplement to increase n-3 FA in milk was AO. 22:6 n-3 and total n-3 PUFA content increased from 0.02 and 0.60% (control) to 2.63 and 3.53% (AO), respectively. All diets supplemented with n-3 FA diminished the content of saturated FA in milk and its atherogenic index, while the levels of trans-11 18:1 and cis-9 trans-11 18:2 significantly increased. Overall, the enhancement of n-3 FA in ewe’s milk would be advantageous for the manufacture of nutritionally improved cheeses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Manso
- Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales, Universidad de Valladolid, 34004 Palencia, Spain; (T.M.); (B.G.)
| | - Beatriz Gallardo
- Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales, Universidad de Valladolid, 34004 Palencia, Spain; (T.M.); (B.G.)
| | - Paz Lavín
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE), Grulleros, 24346 León, Spain; (P.L.); (Á.R.M.)
| | - Ángel Ruiz Mantecón
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE), Grulleros, 24346 León, Spain; (P.L.); (Á.R.M.)
| | - Carmen Cejudo
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación, CSIC-UAM, Nicolás Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.C.); (M.Á.d.l.F.)
| | - Pilar Gómez-Cortés
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación, CSIC-UAM, Nicolás Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.C.); (M.Á.d.l.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-910-017-900
| | - Miguel Ángel de la Fuente
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación, CSIC-UAM, Nicolás Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.C.); (M.Á.d.l.F.)
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2
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Vítor ACM, Francisco AE, Silva J, Pinho M, Huws SA, Santos-Silva J, Bessa RJB, Alves SP. Freeze-dried Nannochloropsis oceanica biomass protects eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from metabolization in the rumen of lambs. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21878. [PMID: 34750444 PMCID: PMC8576006 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01255-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from freeze-dried biomass of Nannochloropsis oceanica microalgae resists ruminal biohydrogenation in vitro, but in vivo demonstration is needed. Therefore, the present study was designed to test the rumen protective effects of N. oceanica in lambs. Twenty-eight lambs were assigned to one of four diets: Control (C); and C diets supplemented with: 1.2% Nannochloropsis sp. oil (O); 12.3% spray-dried N. oceanica (SD); or 9.2% N. oceanica (FD), to achieve 3 g EPA /kg dry matter. Lambs were slaughtered after 3 weeks and digestive contents and ruminal wall samples were collected. EPA concentration in the rumen of lambs fed FD was about 50% higher than lambs fed SD or O diets. Nevertheless, the high levels of EPA in cecum and faeces of animals fed N. oceanica biomass, independently of the drying method, suggests that EPA was not completely released and absorbed in the small intestine. Furthermore, supplementation with EPA sources also affected the ruminal biohydrogenation of C18 fatty acids, mitigating the shift from the t10 biohydrogenation pathways to the t11 pathways compared to the Control diet. Overall, our results demonstrate that FD N. oceanica biomass is a natural rumen-protected source of EPA to ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C M Vítor
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.,CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alexandra E Francisco
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.,Polo de Investigação de Santarém, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária E Veterinária (INIAV-Santarém), 2005-048, Vale de Santarém, Portugal
| | - Joana Silva
- Allmicroalgae, Rua 25 Abril, 2445-413, Pataias, Portugal
| | - Mário Pinho
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.,CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sharon A Huws
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - José Santos-Silva
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.,Polo de Investigação de Santarém, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária E Veterinária (INIAV-Santarém), 2005-048, Vale de Santarém, Portugal
| | - Rui J B Bessa
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.,CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Susana P Alves
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal. .,CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.
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Antonio Gagliostro G, Elisabet Antonacci L, Daiana Pérez C, Rossetti L, Carabajal A. Improving Concentration of Healthy Fatty Acids in Milk, Cheese and Yogurt by Adding a Blend of Soybean and Fish Oils to the Ration of Confined Dairy Cows. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.4236/ojas.2020.101010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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4
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Marques JA, Del Valle TA, Ghizzi LG, Zilio EMC, Gheller LS, Nunes AT, Silva TBP, Dias MSDS, Grigoletto NTS, Koontz AF, da Silva GG, Rennó FP. Increasing dietary levels of docosahexaenoic acid-rich microalgae: Ruminal fermentation, animal performance, and milk fatty acid profile of mid-lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:5054-5065. [PMID: 30954254 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-16017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of increasing dietary levels of microalgae (ALG), rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; All-G-Rich, Alltech, Nicholasville, KY), in isolipidic diets, on animal performance, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, milk fatty acid profile, energy balance, microbial protein synthesis, and blood serum metabolites in mid-lactating dairy cows. Twenty-four Holstein cows [130.3 ± 15.4 d in milk, and 30.8 ± 0.543 kg/d of milk yield (mean ± standard error)] were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment to evaluate the following treatments: control diet, without addition of ALG; and increasing levels of ALG [2, 4, and 6 g/kg of dry matter (DM)]. The ALG decreased DM intake and increased total-tract DM apparent digestibility. A tendency was observed for a quadratic effect on total-tract NDF digestibility by ALG inclusion, with peak value of the quadratic response at 4.13 g/kg of DM dose. Moreover, ALG increased ruminal pH and decreased acetate and total volatile fatty acid concentrations. Fat-corrected milk and energy-corrected milk were quadratically affected, and a tendency for a milk yield effect was observed when ALG levels increased, whereas maximal yields were observed with intermediate doses. Milk fat, protein, and lactose concentrations were diminished, whereas productive efficiency was improved by the increase of ALG levels. Saturated fatty acid proportions were decreased, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acid proportions were increased when ALG was fed. There was low DHA transfer into milk; however, ALG inclusion decreased C18:0, C18:1 cis-9, C18:2 cis-9,12, and C18:3 cis-9,12,15 proportions, and increased C18:2 cis-9,trans-11, C18:1 trans-9, and C18:1 trans-11 proportions. Gross energy intake was decreased, whereas no effect was observed on digestible, metabolizable, or net energy intake. The ALG inclusion quadratically affected the microbial protein synthesis, with maximal enhancement at 3.24 g/kg of DM dose, and also increased serum cholesterol concentration. Under the conditions of this experiment, the inclusion of ALG in diets for mid-lactating dairy cows decreased feed intake and increased nutrient digestibility, improving productive efficiency and modifying milk fatty acid profile. Estimated intermediate doses (1.22 to 2.90 g/kg of DM) of DHA-rich ALG may be beneficial to milk, fat-corrected milk, and energy-corrected milk yields, and is recommended for dairy cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlia A Marques
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Tiago A Del Valle
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Lucas G Ghizzi
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Elissandra M C Zilio
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Larissa S Gheller
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Alanne T Nunes
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Tássia B P Silva
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Mauro S da S Dias
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Nathália T S Grigoletto
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | | | - Guilherme G da Silva
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil
| | - Francisco P Rennó
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Production, University of Sao Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil; Bursar 1-B of the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development, Brasília, Brazil 71605-001.
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5
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Palmquist DL, Jenkins TC. A 100-Year Review: Fat feeding of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2018; 100:10061-10077. [PMID: 29153155 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-12924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Over 100 years, the Journal of Dairy Science has recorded incredible changes in the utilization of fat for dairy cattle. Fat has progressed from nothing more than a contaminant in some protein supplements to a valuable high-energy substitute for cereal grains, a valuable energy source in its own right, and a modifier of cellular metabolism that is under active investigation in the 21st century. Milestones in the use of fats for dairy cattle from 1917 to 2017 result from the combined efforts of noted scientists and industry personnel worldwide, with much of the research published in Journal of Dairy Science. We are humbled to have been asked to contribute to this historical collection of significant developments in fat research over the past 100 years. Our goal is not to detail all the work published as each development moved forward; rather, it is to point out when publication marked a significant change in thinking regarding use of fat supplements. This approach forced omission of critically important names and publications in many journals as ideas moved forward. However, we hope that a description of the major changes in fat feeding during the past 100 years will stimulate reflection on progress in fat research and encourage further perusal of details of significant events.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Palmquist
- Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster 44691.
| | - T C Jenkins
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
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Alves SP, Mendonça SH, Silva JL, Bessa RJB. Nannochloropsis oceanica, a novel natural source of rumen-protected eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) for ruminants. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10269. [PMID: 29980726 PMCID: PMC6035222 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28576-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We hypothesize that whole microalga biomass is a natural rumen-protected source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) for ruminants. To test our hypothesis, we studied the ruminal biohydrogenation of EPA from two microalgae, Nannochloropsis oceanica and Phaeodactylum tricornutum using in vitro incubations with rumen fluid. A total mixed ration was incubated with: no EPA (control), EPA as free-fatty acid, N. oceanica spray-dried (SD), N. oceanica freeze-dried (FD), or P. tricornutum FD. The kinetics of EPA disappearance and of products formed during the 24 hours of incubation were evaluated, and complemented by deuterated-EPA incubation. Results showed that EPA metabolism from the N. oceanica was remarkably reduced compared with the P. tricornutum and free-EPA, and this reduction was even more effective with the N. oceanica FD. Our data also indicates that neither feed dry matter disappearance nor rumen microbial markers (branched-chain fatty acids and dimethyl acetals) were affected by EPA-sources. We reported for the first time the kinetics of EPA biohydrogenation class products and the unequivocal formation of 20:0 from EPA. Overall, N. oceanica shows a strong potential to be used as a natural dietary source of EPA to ruminants, nevertheless further studies are needed to verify its protection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana P Alves
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Sofia H Mendonça
- ALLMICROALGAE, Av. Eng. Duarte Pacheco 19, 9° piso, 1070-100, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joana L Silva
- ALLMICROALGAE, Av. Eng. Duarte Pacheco 19, 9° piso, 1070-100, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rui J B Bessa
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisboa, Portugal
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7
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Zakariapour Bahnamiri H, Ganjkhanlou M, Zali A, Yang WZ. Effect of fish oil supplementation and forage source on Holstein bulls performance, carcass characteristics and fatty acids profile. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/1828051x.2017.1404942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Abolfazl Zali
- Department of Animal Science, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
| | - Wen Zhu Yang
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Centre, Lethbridge, Canada
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Aldai N, Delmonte P, Alves SP, Bessa RJB, Kramer JKG. Evidence for the Initial Steps of DHA Biohydrogenation by Mixed Ruminal Microorganisms from Sheep Involves Formation of Conjugated Fatty Acids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:842-855. [PMID: 29291262 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Incubation of DHA with sheep rumen fluid resulted in 80% disappearance in 6 h. The products were analyzed as their fatty acid (FA) methyl esters by GC-FID on SP-2560 and SLB-IL111 columns. The GC-online reduction × GC and GC-MS techniques demonstrated that all DHA metabolites retained the C22 structure (no evidence of chain-shortening). Two new transient DHA products were identified: mono-trans methylene interrupted-DHA and monoconjugated DHA (MC-DHA) isomers. Identification of MC-DHA was confirmed by their predicted elution using equivalent chain length differences from C18 FA, their molecular ions, and the 22:5 products formed which were the most abundant at 6 h. The 22:5 structures were established by fragmentation of their 4,4-dimethyloxazoline derivatives, and all 22:5 products contained an isolated double bond, suggesting formation via MC-DHA. The most abundant c4,c7,c10,t14,c19-22:5 appeared to be formed by unknown isomerases. Results suggest that the initial biohydrogenation of DHA was analogous to that of C18 FA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Aldai
- Department of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Paseo de la Universidad 7, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Pierluigi Delmonte
- Office of Regulatory Science, Centre for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration , College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Susana P Alves
- CIISA, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon , Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rui J B Bessa
- CIISA, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon , Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - John K G Kramer
- Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Guelph N1G 5C9, Ontario, Canada
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Effects of tannins on the fatty acid profiles of rumen fluids and milk from lactating goats fed a total mixed ration containing rapeseed oil. Livest Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Enhancing the DHA content in milk from dairy cows by feeding ALL-G-RICH™. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL NUTRITION 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/jan.2017.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
SummaryThe objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the dietary inclusion of 6 g/kg dry matter intake of an unextracted Aurantiochytrium limacinum algae (AURA) in mid-lactation Italian Friesian cows under commercial conditions on milk yield, milk composition and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content. Cows were allocated to two groups (n = 18; 108.2 ± 66.1 and 104.4 ± 54.6 days in milk, control and treated groups, respectively). Feeding AURA for 84 d had no effect on dry matter intake, body condition score or weight gain, but did improve milk yield by 1.9 kg/cow/d (+5.4%; P < 0.1) over the course of the experiment. Milk fat concentration declined by 12% (P < 0.0001) without any significant change in 4% fat corrected milk, protein or lactose. Supplementing AURA for 12 weeks substantially altered the fatty acid profile of milk compared with milk from CON-fed cows such that the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids increased, omega-3 fatty acid content increased by 73.1% (P < 0.0001) and was accompanied by a favourable increase in the omega-3:6 fatty acid ratio by 75.0% (P < 0.0001). The AURA supplement, during day 7–84, increased the DHA concentration to 0.37 g /100 g milk total fatty acids (P < 0.0001) with a mean transfer efficiency of 18.1% from feed to milk. Together these results indicated that supplementing a dairy cow diet with DHA-rich microalgae is a feasible and efficient means for creating DHA-enriched milk for human consumption.
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Vargas JE, Andrés S, Snelling TJ, López-Ferreras L, Yáñez-Ruíz DR, García-Estrada C, López S. Effect of Sunflower and Marine Oils on Ruminal Microbiota, In vitro Fermentation and Digesta Fatty Acid Profile. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1124. [PMID: 28676798 PMCID: PMC5476686 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study using the rumen simulation technique (RUSITEC) investigated the changes in the ruminal microbiota and anaerobic fermentation in response to the addition of different lipid supplements to a ruminant diet. A basal diet with no oil added was the control, and the treatment diets were supplemented with sunflower oil (2%) only, or sunflower oil (2%) in combination with fish oil (1%) or algae oil (1%). Four fermentation units were used per treatment. RUSITEC fermenters were inoculated with rumen digesta. Substrate degradation, fermentation end-products (volatile fatty acids, lactate, gas, methane, and ammonia), and microbial protein synthesis were determined. Fatty acid profiles and microbial community composition were evaluated in digesta samples. Numbers of representative bacterial species and microbial groups were determined using qPCR. Microbial composition and diversity were based on T-RFLP spectra. The addition of oils had no effect on substrate degradation or microbial protein synthesis. Differences among diets in neutral detergent fiber degradation were not significant (P = 0.132), but the contrast comparing oil–supplemented diets with the control was significant (P = 0.039). Methane production was reduced (P < 0.05) with all oil supplements. Propionate production was increased when diets containing oil were fermented. Compared with the control, the addition of algae oil decreased the percentage C18:3 c9c12c15 in rumen digesta, and that of C18:2 c9t11 was increased when the control diet was supplemented with any oil. Marine oils decreased the hydrogenation of C18 unsaturated fatty acids. Microbial diversity was not affected by oil supplementation. Cluster analysis showed that diets with additional fish or algae oils formed a group separated from the sunflower oil diet. Supplementation with marine oils decreased the numbers of Butyrivibrio producers of stearic acid, and affected the numbers of protozoa, methanogens, Selenomonas ruminantium and Streptococcus bovis, but not total bacteria. In conclusion, there is a potential to manipulate the rumen fermentation and microbiota with the addition of sunflower, fish or algae oils to ruminant diets at appropriate concentrations. Specifically, supplementation of ruminant mixed rations with marine oils will reduce methane production, the acetate to propionate ratio and the fatty acid hydrogenation in the rumen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio E Vargas
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad de LeónLeón, Spain.,Grupo CIENVET, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad de CaldasManizales, Colombia
| | - Sonia Andrés
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad de LeónLeón, Spain
| | - Timothy J Snelling
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad de LeónLeón, Spain.,Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of AberdeenAberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Lorena López-Ferreras
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad de LeónLeón, Spain.,Department of Physiology/Metabolic Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Secundino López
- Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad de LeónLeón, Spain
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12
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Ramos-Morales E, McKain N, Gawad R, Hugo A, Wallace R. Vernonia galamensis and vernolic acid inhibit fatty acid biohydrogenation in vitro. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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13
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Jeyanathan J, Escobar M, Wallace RJ, Fievez V, Vlaeminck B. Biohydrogenation of 22:6n-3 by Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus P18. BMC Microbiol 2016; 16:104. [PMID: 27283157 PMCID: PMC4901502 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-016-0720-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rumen microbes metabolize 22:6n-3. However, pathways of 22:6n-3 biohydrogenation and ruminal microbes involved in this process are not known. In this study, we examine the ability of the well-known rumen biohydrogenating bacteria, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens D1 and Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus P18, to hydrogenate 22:6n-3. Results Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens D1 failed to hydrogenate 22:6n-3 (0.5 to 32 μg/mL) in growth medium containing autoclaved ruminal fluid that either had or had not been centrifuged. Growth of B. fibrisolvens was delayed at the higher 22:6n-3 concentrations; however, total volatile fatty acid production was not affected. Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus P18 hydrogenated 22:6n-3 in growth medium containing autoclaved ruminal fluid that either had or had not been centrifuged. Biohydrogenation only started when volatile fatty acid production or growth of B. proteoclasticus P18 had been initiated, which might suggest that growth or metabolic activity is a prerequisite for the metabolism of 22:6n-3. The amount of 22:6n-3 hydrogenated was quantitatively recovered in several intermediate products eluting on the gas chromatogram between 22:6n-3 and 22:0. Formation of neither 22:0 nor 22:6 conjugated fatty acids was observed during 22:6n-3 metabolism. Extensive metabolism was observed at lower initial concentrations of 22:6n-3 (5, 10 and 20 μg/mL) whereas increasing concentrations of 22:6n-3 (40 and 80 μg/mL) inhibited its metabolism. Stearic acid formation (18:0) from 18:2n-6 by B. proteoclasticus P18 was retarded, but not completely inhibited, in the presence of 22:6n-3 and this effect was dependent on 22:6n-3 concentration. Conclusions For the first time, our study identified ruminal bacteria with the ability to hydrogenate 22:6n-3. The gradual appearance of intermediates indicates that biohydrogenation of 22:6n-3 by B. proteoclasticus P18 occurs by pathways of isomerization and hydrogenation resulting in a variety of unsaturated 22 carbon fatty acids. During the simultaneous presence of 18:2n-6 and 22:6n-3, B. proteoclasticus P18 initiated 22:6n-3 metabolism before converting 18:1 isomers into 18:0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeyamalar Jeyanathan
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Ghent University, Proefhoevestraat 10, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - Marlene Escobar
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Ghent University, Proefhoevestraat 10, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - Robert John Wallace
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Veerle Fievez
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Ghent University, Proefhoevestraat 10, 9090, Melle, Belgium.
| | - Bruno Vlaeminck
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Ghent University, Proefhoevestraat 10, 9090, Melle, Belgium
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Lanier JS, Corl BA. Challenges in enriching milk fat with polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2015; 6:26. [PMID: 26110055 PMCID: PMC4479322 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-015-0025-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Milk fatty acid composition is determined by several factors including diet. The milk fatty acid profile of dairy cows is low in polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially those of the n-3 series. Efforts to change and influence fatty acid profile with longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids have proven challenging. Several barriers prevent easy transfer of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids to milk fat including rumen biohydrogenation and fatty acid esterification. The potential for cellular uptake and differences in fatty acid incorporation into milk fat might also have an effect, though this has received less research effort. Given physiological impediments to enriching milk fat with polyunsaturated fatty acids, manipulating the genome of the cow might provide a greater increase than diet alone, but this too may be challenged by the physiology of the cow.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin A Corl
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0315 USA
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15
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Meale SJ, Chaves AV, He ML, McAllister TA. Dose–response of supplementing marine algae (Schizochytrium spp.) on production performance, fatty acid profiles, and wool parameters of growing lambs1. J Anim Sci 2014; 92:2202-13. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2013-7024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- S. J. Meale
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - A. V. Chaves
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - M. L. He
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - T. A. McAllister
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
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16
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Vlaeminck B, Braeckman T, Fievez V. Rumen Metabolism of 22:6n-3 In Vitro is Dependent on its Concentration and Inoculum Size, but Less Dependent on Substrate Carbohydrate Composition. Lipids 2014; 49:517-25. [DOI: 10.1007/s11745-014-3905-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B. Vlaeminck
- ; Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality; Ghent University; Proefhoevestraat 10 Melle 9090 Belgium
| | - T. Braeckman
- ; Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality; Ghent University; Proefhoevestraat 10 Melle 9090 Belgium
| | - V. Fievez
- ; Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality; Ghent University; Proefhoevestraat 10 Melle 9090 Belgium
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17
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Ishlak A, AbuGhazaleh A, Günal M. Short communication: Effect of blackberry and pomegranate oils on vaccenic acid formation in a single-flow continuous culture fermentation system. J Dairy Sci 2014; 97:1067-71. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-6860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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18
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Effects of olive and fish oil Ca soaps in ewe diets on milk fat and muscle and subcutaneous tissue fatty-acid profiles of suckling lambs. Animal 2014; 8:1178-90. [DOI: 10.1017/s1751731114000238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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19
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Ferreira E, Pires A, Susin I, Gentil R, Parente M, Nolli C, Meneghini R, Mendes C, Ribeiro C. Growth, feed intake, carcass characteristics, and meat fatty acid profile of lambs fed soybean oil partially replaced by fish oil blend. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Aldai N, de Renobales M, Barron LJR, Kramer JKG. What are thetransfatty acids issues in foods after discontinuation of industrially producedtransfats? Ruminant products, vegetable oils, and synthetic supplements. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201300072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Aldai
- Lactiker Research Group; Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU); Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain
| | - Mertxe de Renobales
- Lactiker Research Group; Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU); Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain
| | - Luis Javier R. Barron
- Lactiker Research Group; Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU); Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain
| | - John K. G. Kramer
- Guelph Food Research Centre; Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada; Guelph ON Canada
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21
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AbuGhazaleh AA, Ishlak A. Effects of incremental amounts of fish oil on trans
fatty acids and Butyrivibrio
bacteria in continuous culture fermenters. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2013; 98:271-8. [DOI: 10.1111/jpn.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. A. AbuGhazaleh
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition; Southern Illinois University; Carbondale IL USA
| | - A. Ishlak
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition; Southern Illinois University; Carbondale IL USA
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22
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Stamey JA, Shepherd DM, de Veth MJ, Corl BA. Use of algae or algal oil rich in n-3 fatty acids as a feed supplement for dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci 2013; 95:5269-5275. [PMID: 22916931 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-5412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Fish oil is used as a ration additive to provide n-3 fatty acids to dairy cows. Fish do not synthesize n-3 fatty acids; they must consume microscopic algae or other algae-consuming fish. New technology allows for the production of algal biomass for use as a ration supplement for dairy cattle. Lipid encapsulation of the algal biomass protects n-3 fatty acids from biohydrogenation in the rumen and allows them to be available for absorption and utilization in the small intestine. Our objective was to examine the use of algal products as a source for n-3 fatty acids in milk. Four mid-lactation Holsteins were assigned to a 4×4 Latin square design. Their rations were supplemented with 1× or 0.5× rumen-protected (RP) algal biomass supplement, 1× RP algal oil supplement, or no supplement for 7 d. Supplements were lipid encapsulated (Balchem Corp., New Hampton, NY). The 1× supplements provided 29 g/d of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and 0.5× provided half of this amount. Treatments were analyzed by orthogonal contrasts. Supplementing dairy rations with rumen-protected algal products did not affect feed intake, milk yield, or milk component yield. Short- and medium-chain fatty acid yields in milk were not influenced by supplements. Both 0.5× and 1× RP algae supplements increased daily milk fat yield of DHA (0.5 and 0.6±0.10 g/d, respectively) compared with 1× RP oil (0.3±0.10 g/d), but all supplements resulted in milk fat yields greater than that of the control (0.1±0.10g/d). Yield of trans-18:1 fatty acids in milk fat was also increased by supplementation. Trans-11 18:1 yield (13, 20, 27, and 15±3.0 g/d for control, 0.5× RP algae, 1× RP algae, and 1× RP oil, respectively) was greater for supplements than for control. Concentration of DHA in the plasma lipid fraction on d 7 showed that the DHA concentration was greatest in plasma phospholipid. Rumen-protected algal biomass provided better DHA yield than algal oil. Feeding lipid-encapsulated algae supplements may increase n-3 content in milk fat without adversely affecting milk fat yield; however, preferential esterification of DHA into plasma phospholipid may limit its incorporation into milk fat.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Stamey
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061
| | - D M Shepherd
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061
| | | | - B A Corl
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061.
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23
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Puppel K, Nałecz-Tarwacka T, Kuczyńska B, Gołebiewski M, Kordyasz M, Grodzki H. The age of cows as a factor shaping the antioxidant level during a nutritional experiment with fish oil and linseed supplementation for increasing the antioxidant value of milk. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2012; 92:2494-2499. [PMID: 22467448 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.5658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND So far, in research studies, the age of cows has not been considered as a factor that may influence the changes in the content of milk ingredients with antioxidant properties modified by the feed supplementation. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of supplementation on the content of ingredients having antioxidant properties and to determine the influence of the age of cows taking part in the experiment on these changes. The experiment was conducted using 20 Polish Holstein Friesian cows, 10 primiparous and 10 multiparous. The combined supplementation of fish oil and linseed constituted the experimental factor. RESULTS The milk of primiparous cows after 21 days of supplementation was characterised by a higher content of C18:1 trans-11, C18:2 cis-9, trans-11, α-retinol, α-tocopherol and β-lactoglobulin compared to the milk of multiparous cows, in which a higher level of lactoferrin, C20:5 and β-carotene was recorded. In both groups an increase in the total antioxidant status was noted (a higher level in the milk of primiparous cows). CONCLUSIONS Modification of the diet of cows with fish oil and linseed significantly influenced antioxidant properties of their milk; however, the response of multiparous and primaparous cows was noticeably different to the supplement introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Puppel
- Department of Animal Breeding, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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24
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Evaluating the In Vitro Metabolism of Docosahexaenoic Acid in Sheep Rumen Fluid. Lipids 2012; 47:821-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s11745-012-3688-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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25
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Shingfield KJ, Lee MRF, Humphries DJ, Scollan ND, Toivonen V, Beever DE, Reynolds CK. Effect of linseed oil and fish oil alone or as an equal mixture on ruminal fatty acid metabolism in growing steers fed maize silage-based diets1. J Anim Sci 2011; 89:3728-41. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2011-4047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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26
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Alves SP, Maia MRG, Bessa RJB, Fonseca AJM, Cabrita ARJ. Identification of C18 intermediates formed during stearidonic acid biohydrogenation by rumen microorganisms in vitro. Lipids 2011; 47:171-83. [PMID: 22038686 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-011-3621-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In vitro batch incubations were used to study the rumen biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids. An earlier study using increasing supplementation levels of stearidonic acid (18:4n-3), revealed that the rumen microbial population extensively biohydrogenates 18:4n-3 after 72 h of in vitro incubation, though several intermediates formed were not completely characterized. Therefore, in the present study, samples were reanalyzed in order to identify the 18:2, 18:3 and 18:4 biohydrogenation intermediates of 18:4n-3. Gas-liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was used to characterize these intermediates. The acetonitrile chemical ionization mass spectrometry of the fatty acid methyl esters derivatives enabled the discrimination of fatty acids as non-conjugated or conjugated biohydrogenation intermediates. In addition, the acetonitrile covalent adduct chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry yielded prominent ions indicative of the double bond position of the major 18:3 isomers, i.e. Δ5,11,15 18:3. Furthermore, the 4,4-dimethyloxazoline derivatives prepared from the fatty acid methyl esters enabled the structure of novel 18:2, 18:3 and 18:4 biohydrogenation intermediates to be elucidated. The intermediates accumulated in the fermentation media after 72 h of incubation of 18:4n-3 suggest that similar to the biohydrogenation pathways of linoleic (18:2n-6) and α-linolenic (18:3n-3) acids, the pathway of the 18:4n-3 also proceeds with the formation of conjugated fatty acids followed by hydrogenation, although no conjugated dienes were found. The formation of the novel biohydrogenation intermediates of 18:4n-3 seems to follow an uncommon isomerization pattern with distinct double bond migrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Alves
- INRB, Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos, Unidade de Produção Animal, 2005-048, Fonte-Boa, Vale de Santarém, Portugal.
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Klein C, Jenkins T. Docosahexaenoic acid elevates trans-18:1 isomers but is not directly converted into trans-18:1 isomers in ruminal batch cultures. J Dairy Sci 2011; 94:4676-83. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2011-4344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2011] [Accepted: 05/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Liu S, Bu D, Wang J, Sun P, Wei H, Zhou L, Yu Z. Effect of ruminal pulse dose of polyunsaturated fatty acids on ruminal microbial populations and duodenal flow and milk profiles of fatty acids. J Dairy Sci 2011; 94:2977-85. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2010-3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Kupczyński R, Szołtysik M, Janeczek W, Chrzanowska J, Kinal S, Króliczewska B. Effect of dietary fish oil on milk yield, fatty acids content and serum metabolic profile in dairy cows. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2010; 95:512-22. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2010.01078.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Toral P, Shingfield K, Hervás G, Toivonen V, Frutos P. Effect of fish oil and sunflower oil on rumen fermentation characteristics and fatty acid composition of digesta in ewes fed a high concentrate diet. J Dairy Sci 2010; 93:4804-17. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2010-3300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Toral P, Hervás G, Gómez-Cortés P, Frutos P, Juárez M, de la Fuente M. Milk fatty acid profile and dairy sheep performance in response to diet supplementation with sunflower oil plus incremental levels of marine algae. J Dairy Sci 2010; 93:1655-67. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2009-2769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abughazaleh AA, Potu RB, Ibrahim S. Short communication: The effect of substituting fish oil in dairy cow diets with docosahexaenoic acid-micro algae on milk composition and fatty acids profile. J Dairy Sci 2010; 92:6156-9. [PMID: 19923618 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2009-2400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effects of substituting fish oil (FO) with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-micro algae on milk chemical and fatty acid composition were examined in this study. Twenty-four Holstein cows in mid lactation grazing on an alfalfa-grass based pasture were divided into 4 treatment groups (6 cows/treatment) and supplemented with 7 kg/d grain mix plus 350 g of soybean oil and one of the following: 1) 150 g of FO, 2) 100 g of FO plus 50 g of algae, 3) 50 g of FO plus 100 g of algae, or 4) 150 g of algae. Cows were fed treatment diets for 3 wk, and milk samples were collected from each cow during the last 3 d of the study. Milk production (17.96, 17.56, 17.55, and 19.26 kg/d for treatment diets 1 to 4, respectively), milk fat percentages (3.17, 3.49, 3.74, and 3.43%), and milk protein percentages (3.35, 3.50, 3.71, and 3.42%) were similar between treatment diets. Concentrations (g/100 g of fatty acids) of milk cis-9 trans-11 (c9t11) conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 3.41, 3.69, 4.47, and 4.21 for treatment diets 1 to 4, respectively) and vaccenic acid (11.80, 12.83, 13.87, and 13.53) were similar between treatment diets. Results of this study suggest that DHA-micro algae can partially or fully substitute FO in a cow's diet without any adverse effects on milk production, milk composition, or milk c9t11 CLA content. The DHA-micro algae may be used as a viable alternative for FO in cow's diet to modify rumen biohydrogenation to increase milk c9t11 CLA content.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Abughazaleh
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 62901, USA.
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Savoini G, Agazzi A, Invernizzi G, Cattaneo D, Pinotti L, Baldi A. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and choline in dairy goats nutrition: Production and health benefits. Small Rumin Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2009.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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36
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Effect of grain type and processing method on rumen fermentation and milk rumenic acid production. Animal 2010; 4:1425-44. [DOI: 10.1017/s175173111000039x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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Osborne VR, Radhakrishnan S, Odongo NE, Hill AR, McBride BW. Effects of supplementing fish oil in the drinking water of dairy cows on production performance and milk fatty acid composition1. J Anim Sci 2008; 86:720-9. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2007-0342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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38
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Flowers G, Ibrahim S, AbuGhazaleh A. Milk Fatty Acid Composition of Grazing Dairy Cows When Supplemented with Linseed Oil. J Dairy Sci 2008; 91:722-30. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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39
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Jenkins TC, Wallace RJ, Moate PJ, Mosley EE. BOARD-INVITED REVIEW: Recent advances in biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids within the rumen microbial ecosystem1. J Anim Sci 2008; 86:397-412. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2007-0588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 453] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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40
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Cruz-Hernandez C, Kramer JKG, Kennelly JJ, Glimm DR, Sorensen BM, Okine EK, Goonewardene LA, Weselake RJ. Evaluating the conjugated linoleic acid and trans 18:1 isomers in milk fat of dairy cows fed increasing amounts of sunflower oil and a constant level of fish oil. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:3786-801. [PMID: 17638990 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The objective was to evaluate different levels of sun-flower oil (SFO) in dairy rations to increase vaccenic (trans-11-18:1) and rumenic acids (cis-9,trans-11-18:2) in milk fat, and assess the content and composition of other trans-octadecenoic (trans-18:1) and conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) isomers. Eighty lactating Holstein cows were fed control diets for 4 wk and then placed on 4 diets for 38 d; milk fat was analyzed after 10 and 38 d. The treatments were: control, 1.5% SFO plus 0.5% fish oil (FO), 3% SFO plus 0.5% FO, and 4.5% SFO plus 0.5% FO. The forage-to-concentrate ratio was 50:50 and consisted of barley/alfalfa/hay silage and corn/barley grain concentrate. There were no differences in milk production. Supplementation of SFO/FO reduced milk fat compared with respective pretreatment periods, but milk protein and lactose levels were not affected. There was a linear decrease in all short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids (SFA) in milk fat after 10 d (25.5, 24.1, 20.2, and 16.7%) and a corresponding linear increase in total trans-18:1 (5.2, 9.1, 14.1, and 21.3%) and total CLA (0.7, 1.9, 2.4, and 3.9%). The other FA in milk fat were not affected. Separation of trans-18:1 isomers was achieved by combination of gas chromatography (GC; 100-m highly polar capillary column) and prior separation of trans FA by silver ion-thin layer chromatography followed by GC. The CLA isomers were resolved by a combination of GC and silver ion-HPLC. The trans-11- and trans-10-18:1 isomers accounted for approximately 50% of the total trans-18:1 increase when SFO/FO diets were fed. On continued feeding to 38 d, trans-11-18:1 increased with 1.5% SFO/FO, stayed the same with 3%, and declined with 4.5% SFO/FO. Rumenic acid showed a similar pattern on continued feeding as trans-11-18:2; levels increased to 0.43, 1.5, 1.9, and 3.4% at 10 d and to 0.42, 2.15, 2.09, and 2.78% at 38 d. Rumenic acid was the major CLA isomer in all 4 diets: 66, 77, 78 and 85%. The CLA isomers trans-7,cis-9-, trans-9,cis-11-, trans-10,cis-12-, trans-11,trans-13-, and trans-9,trans-11-/trans-10,trans-12-18:2 also increased from 0.18 (control) to 0.52% (4.5% SFO/FO). Milk fat produced from 3% SFO/FO appeared most promising: trans-11-18:1 and cis-9,trans-11-18:2 increased 4.5-fold, total SFA reduced 18%, and moderate levels of trans-10-18:1 (3.2%), other trans-18:1 (6.6%) and CLA isomers (0.5%) were observed, and that composition remained unchanged to 38 d. The 4.5% SFO/FO diet produced higher levels of trans-11-18:1 and cis-9,trans-11-18:2, a 28% reduction in SFA, and similar levels of other trans-18:1 (9.2%) and CLA isomers (0.52%), but the higher levels of trans-11-18:1 and cis-9,trans-11-18:2 were not sustained. A stable milk fat quality was achieved by feeding moderate amounts of SFO (3% of DM) in the presence of 0.5% FO that had 4% vaccenic and 2% rumenic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cruz-Hernandez
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Alberta, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G-2P5
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Or-Rashid MM, Kramer JKG, Wood MA, McBride BW. Supplemental algal meal alters the ruminal trans-18:1 fatty acid and conjugated linoleic acid composition in cattle. J Anim Sci 2007; 86:187-96. [PMID: 17940158 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2007-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of dietary algal supplementation, a source of docosahexaenoic acid, on the fatty acid profile of rumen lipids in cattle were evaluated, with special emphasis on CLA and trans fatty acids produced by rumen microbes. A diet based on corn silage was fed with supplements containing the following: 1) no algal meal and fed at 2.1 kg of DM/d (control), 2) algal meal and fed at 1.1 kg of DM/d (low algal meal), 3) algal meal and fed at 2.1 kg of DM/d (medium algal meal), and 4) algal meal and fed at 4.2 kg of DM/d (high algal meal). A modified lipid extraction procedure was developed to analyze the lipid changes in rumen fluid. The percentage of stearic acid (18:0) in rumen fluid was decreased by algal meal supplementation (P < 0.001) compared with control and was linearly dependent on the level of algal meal supplementation (P = 0.005). Total trans-18:1 in rumen fluid of cattle fed the control diet was 19% of total fatty acids. Addition of algal meal increased (P < 0.001) total trans-18:1 up to 43%, mostly due to 18:1 trans-10 that increased (P = 0.002) to 29.5% of total rumen fatty acids. This increase in 18:1 trans-10 seems to suggest a change in the rumen microbial population. Vaccenic acid (18:1 trans-11) increased quadratically (P = 0.005) with increasing level of algal meal supplementation in the diets. The total CLA content was low in the control (<0.9%) and increased with dietary algal meal addition, although not significantly; the greatest level was 1.5% with the medium algal meal diet. The increase of rumenic acid (cis-9, trans-11 CLA) was quadratic (P = 0.05) with algal meal supplementation, whereas trans-10, cis-12 CLA increased linearly with increased level of algal meal from 0.08 to 0.13% (P = 0.03). The ratio of trans-11 (cis-9, trans-11 CLA + 18:1 trans-11) to trans-10 (trans-10, cis-12 CLA + 18:1 trans-10) decreased from 2.45 to 0.77, 0.87, and 0.21 for the control, low algal meal, medium algal meal, and high algal meal diets, respectively. The content of docosahexaenoic acid in rumen fluid increased (P = 0.002) from 0.3 to 1.4% of total fatty acids with increasing level of algal meal supplementation in the diets. Our results suggest that algal meal inhibits the reduction of trans-18:1 to 18:0, giving rise to the high trans-18:1 content. In conclusion, algal meal could be used to increase the concentration in rumen contents of trans-18:1 isomers that serve as precursors for CLA biosynthesis in the tissues of ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Or-Rashid
- Food Research Program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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AbuGhazaleh AA, Felton DO, Ibrahim SA. Milk Conjugated Linoleic Acid Response to Fish Oil and Sunflower Oil Supplementation to Dairy Cows Managed Under Two Feeding Systems. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:4763-9. [PMID: 17881699 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Earlier research showed that conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk fat is highest when cows' diets are supplemented with a blend of fish oil (FO) and linoleic acid-rich oils. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of FO and sunflower oil (SFO) supplementation on milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA when dairy cows managed on pasture or in confinement. Fourteen Holstein cows were assigned into 2 treatment groups: cows grazed on alfalfa-grass pasture (PAS) or were fed corn silage-alfalfa hay mix ad libitum (LOT). Both groups were supplemented with a 8.2 kg/d grain supplement containing 640 g of FO and SFO (1:3 wt/ wt). Grain supplement was fed in 2 equal portions after each milking, for a period of 3 wk. Milk samples were collected during the last 3 d of the experimental period. Milk yield was greater with the LOT diet (23.1 kg/ d) compared with the PAS diet (19.4 kg/d). Milk fat percentages (2.51 and 2.95 for the LOT and PAS, respectively) and yields (0.57 and 0.51 kg/d) were similar for the 2 diets. Milk protein percentages were not affected by diets (3.34 and 3.35 for the LOT and PAS diets, respectively), but protein yields were lower for the PAS diet (0.61 kg/d) compared with the LOT diet (0.75 kg/ d). Treatment diets had no effect on milk trans C18:1 concentrations [10.64 and 9.82 g/100 g of total fatty acids (FA) for the LOT and PAS, respectively] or yields (60.65 and 64.01 g/d), but did affect isomers distributions. Concentration (g/100 g of total FA) of vaccenic acid was lower with the LOT diet (2.15) compared with the PAS diet (4.52), whereas concentration of trans-10 C18:1 was greater with the LOT diet (4.99) compared with the PAS diet (1.69). Milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentration was greater with the PAS diet (1.52) compared with the LOT diet (0.84). In conclusion, the increase in milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA content was greater when pasture-based diets were supplemented with FO and SFO. The lower cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentration in milk from the confinement-fed cows resulted from trans-10 C18:1 replacing vaccenic acid as the predominant trans C18:1 isomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A AbuGhazaleh
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 62901, USA.
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Castañeda-Gutiérrez E, de Veth MJ, Lock AL, Dwyer DA, Murphy KD, Bauman DE. Effect of Supplementation with Calcium Salts of Fish Oil on n-3 Fatty Acids in Milk Fat. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:4149-56. [PMID: 17699033 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Enrichment of milk fat with n-3 fatty acids, in particular eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), may be advantageous because of their beneficial effects on human health. In addition, these fatty acids play an important role in reproductive processes in dairy cows. Our objective was to evaluate the protection of EPA and DHA against rumen biohydrogenation provided by Ca salts of fish oil. Four Holstein cows were assigned in a Latin square design to the following treatments: 1) ruminal infusion of Ca salts of fish oil and palm fatty acid distillate low dose (CaFO-1), 2) ruminal infusion of Ca salts of fish oil and palm fatty acid distillate high dose (CaFO-2), 3) ruminal infusion of fish oil high dose (RFO), and 4) abomasal infusion of fish oil high dose (AFO). The high dose of fish oil provided approximately 16 and approximately 21 g/d of EPA and DHA, respectively, whereas the low dose (CaFO-1) provided 50% of these amounts. A 10-d pretreatment period was used as a baseline, followed by 9-d treatment periods with interceding intervals of 10 d. Supplements were infused every 6 h, milk samples were taken the last 3 d, and plasma samples were collected the last day of baseline and treatment periods. Milk fat content of EPA and DHA were 5 to 6 times greater with AFO, but did not differ among other treatments. Milk and milk protein yield were unaffected by treatment, but milk fat yield and DM intake were reduced by 20 and 15%, respectively, by RFO. Overall, results indicate rumen biohydrogenation of long chain n-3 fatty acids was extensive, averaging >85% for EPA and >75% for DHA for the Ca salts and unprotected fish oil supplements. Thus, Ca salts of fish oil offered no protection against the biohydrogenation of EPA and DHA beyond that observed with unprotected fish oil; however, the Ca salts did provide rumen inertness by preventing the negative effects on DM intake and milk fat yield observed with unprotected fish oil.
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Fievez V, Vlaeminck B, Jenkins T, Enjalbert F, Doreau M. Assessing rumen biohydrogenation and its manipulationin vivo,in vitro andin situ. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.200700033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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The effect of pH and polyunsaturated C18 fatty acid source on the production of vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acids in ruminal cultures incubated with docosahexaenoic acid. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2006.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Wasowska I, Maia MRG, Niedźwiedzka KM, Czauderna M, Ribeiro JMCR, Devillard E, Shingfield KJ, Wallace RJ. Influence of fish oil on ruminal biohydrogenation of C18 unsaturated fatty acids. Br J Nutr 2007; 95:1199-211. [PMID: 16768845 DOI: 10.1079/bjn20061783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Dietarycis-9,trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is generally thought to be beneficial for human health. Fish oil added to ruminant diets increases the CLA concentration of milk and meat, an increase thought to arise from alterations in ruminal biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids. To investigate the mechanism for this effect,in vitroincubations were carried out with ruminal digesta and the main biohydrogenating ruminal bacterium,Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens. Linoleic acid (LA) or α-linolenic acid (LNA) was incubated (1·67g/l) with strained ruminal digesta from sheep receiving a 50:50 grass hay–concentrate ration. Adding fish oil (up to 4·17g/l) tended to decrease the initial rate of LA (P=0·025) and LNA (P=0·137) disappearance, decreased (P<0·05) the transient accumulation of conjugated isomers of both fatty acids, and increased (P<0·05) the accumulation oftrans-11-18:1. Concentrations of EPA (20:5n-3) or DHA (22:6n-3), the major fatty acids in fish oil, were low (100mg/l or less) after incubation of fish oil with ruminal digesta. Addition of EPA or DHA (50mg/l) to pure cultures inhibited the growth and isomerase activity ofB. fibrisolvens, while fish oil had no effect. In contrast, similar concentrations of EPA and DHA had no effect on biohydrogenation of LA by mixed digesta, while the addition of LA prevented metabolism of EPA and DHA. Neither EPA nor DHA was metabolised byB. fibrisolvensin pure culture. Thus, fish oil inhibits ruminal biohydrogenation by a mechanism which can be interpreted partly, but not entirely, in terms of its effects onB. fibrisolvens.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Wasowska
- Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, UK
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AbuGhazaleh AA, Buckles WR. The Effect of Solids Dilution Rate and Oil Source on Trans C18:1 and Conjugated Linoleic Acid Production by Ruminal Microbes in Continuous Culture. J Dairy Sci 2007; 90:963-9. [PMID: 17235173 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(07)71580-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of solids dilution rate (SDR) and oil source [soybean oil (SBO) or linseed oil (LSO)] on the ruminal production of trans C18:1 and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). A dual-flow continuous culture system consisting of 4 fermenters was used in a 4 x 4 Latin square design with a factorial arrangement of treatments over 4 consecutive periods of 10 d each. Treatment diets (50:50 forage to concentrate) were fed at 120 g/d of dry matter (DM) in 3 equal portions. The concentrate mix contained 1% fish oil and either 2% SBO or 2% LSO on a DM basis. Treatments were as follows: 1) SBO at 6%/h SDR, 2) SBO at 3%/h SDR, 3) LSO at 6%/h SDR, and 4) LSO at 3%/h SDR. The oil source by SDR interaction was not significant for trans C18:1 and CLA fatty acids. The concentrations of trans C18:1 and vaccenic acid were greater in effluents when diets were supplemented with SBO vs. LSO (37.11 vs. 34.09 and 32.71 vs. 29.70 mg/g of DM, respectively) and at high SDR than low SDR (37.60 vs. 33.61 and 32.72 vs. 29.61 mg/g of DM, respectively). The concentration of cis-9, trans-11 CLA in effluents was also greater with SBO than LSO (0.81 vs. 0.40 mg/g of DM) supplementation and at high SDR than low SDR (0.68 vs. 0.54 mg/g of DM). Biohydrogenation of linoleic acid and linolenic acid increased at higher SDR within each oil treatment. Based on these results, SBO supplementation at high SDR enhances ruminal production of vaccenic acid, and therefore could potentially enhance cis-9, trans-11 CLA in milk fat through synthesis by Delta9-desaturase.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A AbuGhazaleh
- Department of Animal Science, Food, and Nutrition, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 62901, USA
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Production of trans C18:1 and conjugated linoleic acid in continuous culture fermenters fed diets containing fish oil and sunflower oil with decreasing levels of forage. Animal 2007; 1:660-5. [DOI: 10.1017/s1751731107727489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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AbuGhazaleh AA, Holmes LD, Jacobson BN, Kalscheur KF. Short Communication: Eicosatrienoic Acid and Docosatrienoic Acid Do Not Promote Vaccenic Acid Accumulation in Mixed Ruminal Cultures. J Dairy Sci 2006; 89:4336-9. [PMID: 17033021 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(06)72480-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous research found that docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3) was a component of fish oil that promotes trans-C18:1 accumulation in ruminal cultures when incubated with linoleic acid. The objective of this study was to determine if eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3n-3) and docosatrienoic acid (C22:3n-3), n-3 fatty acids in fish oil, promote accumulation of trans-C18:1, vaccenic acid (VA) in particular, using cultures of mixed ruminal microorganisms. Treatments consisted of control, control plus 5 mg of C20:3n-3 (ETA), control plus 5 mg of C22:3n-3 (DTA), control plus 15 mg of linoleic acid (LA), control plus 5 mg of C20:3n-3 and 15 mg of linoleic acid (ETALA), and control plus 5 mg of C22:3n-3 and 15 mg of linoleic acid (DTALA). Treatments were incubated in triplicate in 125-mL flasks, and 5 mL of culture contents was taken at 0 and 24 h for fatty acid analysis by gas-liquid chromatography. After 24 h of incubation, the concentrations of trans-C18:1 (0.87, 0.88, and 0.99 mg/culture), and VA (0.52, 0.56, and 0.62 mg/culture) were similar for the control, ETA, and DTA cultures, respectively. The concentrations of trans-C18:1 (5.51, 5.41, and 5.36 mg/culture), and VA (4.78, 4.62, and 4.59 mg/culture) were also similar between LA, ETALA, and DTALA cultures, respectively. These data suggest that C20:3n-3 and C22:3n-3 are not the active components in fish oil that promote VA accumulation when incubated with linoleic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A AbuGhazaleh
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition, Southern Illinois University-Carbondale, Carbondale 62901, USA.
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