Association of caseins and their possible relation to structure of the casein micelle

Invited review: Modeling milk stability

Novel insights into the stability of milk and milk products during storage and processing result from describing caseins near neutral pH as hydrophilic, intrinsically disordered, proteins. Casein solubility is strongly influenced by pH and multivalent ion binding. Solubility is high at a neutral pH or above, but decreases as the casein net charge approaches zero, allowing a condensed casein phase or gel to form, then increases at lower pH. Of particular importance for casein micelle stability near neutral pH is the proportion of free caseins in the micelle (i.e., caseins not bound directly to nanoclusters of calcium phosphate). Free caseins are more soluble and better able to act as molecular chaperones (to prevent casein and whey protein aggregation) than bound caseins. Some free caseins are highly phosphorylated and can also act as mineral chaperones to inhibit the growth of calcium phosphate phases and prevent mineralized deposits from forming on membranes or heat exchangers. Thus, casein micelle stability is reduced when free caseins bind to amyloid fibrils, destabilized whey proteins or calcium phosphate. The multivalent-binding model of the casein micelle quantitatively describes these and other factors affecting the stability of milk and milk protein products during manufacture and storage.

Structure of biomimetic casein micelles: Critical tests of the hydrophobic colloid and multivalent-binding models using recombinant deuterated and phosphorylated β-casein

Milk contains high concentrations of amyloidogenic casein proteins and is supersaturated with respect to crystalline calcium phosphates such as apatite. Nevertheless, the mammary gland normally remains unmineralized and free of amyloid. Unlike κ-casein, β- and αS-caseins are highly effective mineral chaperones that prevent ectopic and pathological calcification of the mammary gland. Milk invariably contains a mixture of two to five different caseins that act on each other as molecular chaperones. Instead of forming amyloid fibrils, several thousand caseins and hundreds of nanoclusters of amorphous calcium phosphate combine to form fuzzy complexes called casein micelles. To understand the biological functions of the casein micelle its structure needs to be understood better than at present. The location in micelles of the highly amyloidogenic κ-casein is disputed. In traditional hydrophobic colloid models, it, alone, forms a stabilizing surface coat that also determines the average size of the micelles. In the recent multivalent-binding model, κ-casein is present throughout the micelle, in intimate contact with the other caseins. To discriminate between these models, a range of biomimetic micelles was prepared using a fixed concentration of the mineral chaperone β-casein and nanoclusters of calcium phosphate, with variable concentrations of κ-casein. A biomimetic micelle was also prepared using a highly deuterated and in vivo phosphorylated recombinant β-casein with calcium phosphate and unlabelled κ-casein. Neutron and X-ray scattering experiments revealed that κ-casein is distributed throughout the micelle, in quantitative agreement with the multivalent-binding model but contrary to the hydrophobic colloid models.

Multiscale Approach to Studying Biomolecular Interactions in Cellulose-Casein Adhesion

Casein finds application as an eco-friendly adhesive for paper, wood, glass, etc. Casein being a protein can undergo conformational and microstructural changes during various processing steps involved in interfacial bonding. This study aims at understanding the multiscale contributions of these changes in casein to its adhesion to cellulose pressboards. Investigations spanning from molecular structure to macroscopic adhesion characteristics have been used in this work. The lap shear strength of casein bonded cellulose pressboards is found to increase with the increase in casein concentration. It was observed from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) investigations along with microscopy and rheological studies that casein dispersions result in more α-helical conformations during the preconcentration process of casein dispersions. This results in increased hydrophobicity of the casein particles/aggregates, which in turn affects the wetting characteristics and the adhesion behavior. Casein compositions lacking α-helices were found to enhance the bonding strength of casein with cellulose. The present study shows that the adhesion between casein and microporous cellulose substrate has contributions at the multiscale originating from the polar-polar interactions of casein and cellulose molecules, conformational changes in the protein structure of casein during drying, microstructure of casein particles in the dispersion, and the microporous nature of the cellulose boards. These interactions at multiple scales can be tuned to suit different adhesive applications using casein.

Tropomyosin micelles are the major components contributing to the white colour of boiled shellfish soups

Basket clam soup, a popular Asian dish, is prepared by boiling clams in hot water. The soup is generally cloudy, and it is considered that increased cloudiness enhances taste. However, the composition of the whitening ingredients and their association with taste enhancement remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to identify the components contributing to the white colour of the boiled soup. The white component upon precipitation with trichloroacetic acid reacted positively with ninhydrin, indicating the presence of proteins. The separation of proteins using sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed an intense band of size 33 kDa. Peptide mass fingerprinting of the identified protein using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry revealed the protein as tropomyosin. To validate the involvement of tropomyosin in the turbidity of the soup, tropomyosin was expressed and extracted from Escherichia coli. As expected, the purified protein suspended in water resulted in turbid appearance. To determine whether lipids have any association with the observed cloudiness of the soup, the amounts of fatty acids were measured. The proportion of estimated fatty acids was very low compared to that of proteins. Overall, we identified the major component contributing to soup cloudiness as tropomyosin forming micelles.

Interaction of the Exopolysaccharide from Lactobacillus plantarum YW11 with Casein and Bioactivities of the Polymer Complex

There has been an increased application of exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in fermented dairy products, but interactions between EPS and casein (CAS), and bioactivities of their complex are poorly studied. In this study, EPS produced by Lactobacillus plantarum YW11 (EPS-YW11) was studied for interactions with CAS in a simulated fermentation system acidified by D-(+)-gluconic acid δ-lactone. The results showed that there was interaction between EPS-YW11 and CAS when EPS (up to 1%, w/v) was added to the casein solution (3%, w/v) as observed with increased viscoelasticity, water holding capacity, ζ-potential and particle size of EPS-YW11/CAS complex compared with CAS alone. Microstructural analysis showed that a higher concentration of EPS facilitated more even distribution of CAS particles that were connected through the polysaccharide chains. Infrared spectroscopy further confirmed interactions between EPS and CAS by intermolecular hydrogen bonding, electrostatic and hydrophobic contacts. Further evaluation of the bioactivities of EPS-YW11/CAS complex revealed significantly increased antibiofilm, antioxidation, and bile acids binding capacity. The present study provides further understanding on the mechanism of interactions between EPS produced by LAB and CAS, which would benefit potential applications of EPS in fermented dairy products with enhanced functionality.

Exopolysaccharide from Streptococcus thermophilus as stabilizer in fermented dairy: Binding kinetics and interactions with casein of milk

Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) from lactic acid bacteria have great effect on the quality of fermented milk products. However, the mechanism for the quality improvement has not been well described. This study aimed to investigate the molecular binding kinetics and interactions between EPS obtained from Streptococcus thermophilus AR333 (EPS333) and casein of milk (CM) in a simulated acidifying process. The results indicated that EPS333 had a significant effect on the stability of casein micelles at acidic pH (6.0-4.5) according to the turbidity, ζ-potential, particle size and distribution analysis. The adsorption-desorption study by bio-layer interferometry identified the direct affinity binding between EPS333 and CM, the interactive moiety of casein was α-casein, rather than β- or κ-casein. Fluorescence quenching analysis revealed that the force types of interaction between EPS333 and CM were dynamically changeable during the acidifying process, mainly from electrostatic interaction at pH 7.0-6.5, to hydrophobic or hydrogen bonding at pH 6.5-5.5, and then transferred to electrostatic interaction again at pH 5.5-5.0. Conclusively, EPS333 could bind with CM directly via different binding forces during acidifying process to stabilize the properties of casein micelles.

Acid-induced gelation behavior of sonicated casein solutions

Casein gels were made from solutions sonicated by 24 and 130 kHz ultrasounds for 0, 60 and 120 min, followed by acidification with glucono-delta-lactone at 30 degrees C. The dynamics of gel formation were studied using rheological methods and microstructure of gels was monitored using scanning electron microscopy. Sonication postponed the gelation point to a lower pH value and increased the elasticity of freshly formed gels. It also resulted in gels with a more interconnected structure and smaller non-distinguishable particulates. This structure was especially dominant for the gel made from the solution already sonicated for 120 min.

The specificity for κ-casein as the stabilizer of αs-casein and β-casein II. Replacement of κ-casein by detergents and water-soluble polymers

The cationic detergent cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), the anionic detergents sodium lauryl sulphate and sodium deoxycholate, and the nonionic detergents Tween 20, Tween 80 and Brij 35, and lecithin, starch, glycogen, chondroitin sulphate and polyethylene glycol, were tested for their ability to replace κ-casein in stabilizing αs- and β-caseins against precipitation by Ca2+. Of the materials tested, CTAB and Tween 20 stabilized both caseins and Brij 35 stabilized only αs-casein. Analytical ultracentrifugation of mixtures of CTAB with each casein and of Brij 35 with αs-casein indicated that both detergents acted by disrupting the casein aggregates and complexing with the monomers. Addition of CaCl2 did not aggregate the Brij 35–αs-casein complex. It is concluded that the basis of the stabilization phenomenon involves specific interactions between κ-casein and αs-casein or β-casein at mainly hydrophobic sites.

The interaction of bovine milk caseins with the detergent sodium dodecyl sulphate. I. The relationship between the composition and the size of the protein–detergent aggregate

Study of the dissociation of high-molecular-weight aggregates of preparations of αs1-, β-, κ-, and para-κ-casein by the detergent, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), showed that there are differences in the aggregation properties of the individual caseins. Binding of detergent led first to the dissociation of casein aggregates and then to further interaction with the casein molecules. The amounts of detergent required to give the minimum sized protein-detergent aggregate when expressed as mg/mg casein were similar for κ-, para-κ- and αs1-casein but much less for β-casein. However, expressed as mole/mole the requirement for κ- and αs1-casein was similar but was twice that found for para-κ- and β-casein. The maximum amount of SDS bound was about twice that required for complete dissociation of the aggregates for κ-, para-κ- and αs1-casein but was 13 times greater for β-casein.

Complete dissociation of κ-casein aggregates by SDS alone was not possible due to the presence of aggregates formed by disulphide linkages. These aggregates, which consisted of 3±1 protein molecules, accounted for about one-third of the κ-casein in the preparations examined.

Factors affecting the ethanol stability of bovine milk: II. The origin of the pH transition

Dialysing milk against phosphate-free sera showed that the transition in the ethanol (EtOH) stability/pH profile was associated with the soluble phosphate component of the milk serum. Sigmoidal behaviour similar to that of milk was reproduced when the EtOH stability of artificial mixtures of casein, Ca and phosphate was measured as a function of pH. A mechanism for the s coagulation of skim-milk is discussed.

Hydrophobic surface areas and net charges of αs1-, κ-casein and αs1-casein: κ-casein complex

Hydrophobic surface areas of αs1- and κ-casein polymers and αs1-casein: κ-casein complex were estimated by the salting-out technique using various salts according to the theory of Melander & Horvath (1977). Calculated hydrophobic surface areas of αs1, κ-casein polymers and αs1-casein: κ-casein complex were 1976, 3571 and 2989 Å2 respectively. Assuming that κ-casein polymer dissociated into 4 particles in complex formation and that 1 mole of αs1-casein: κ-casein complex was produced from 2 mole of αs1-casein polymer and one of these dissociated κ-casein particles, the hydrophobic surface area of αs1-casein: κ-casein complex was less than those of 2 mole of αs1-casein polymer plus a quarter κ-casein polymer. On the other hand, the net charge of αs1-casein: κ-casein complex was nearly equal to that of 2 mole of αs1-casein polymer plus a quarter of κ-casein polymer. From these results, it was concluded that the complex formation of αs1- and κ-casein polymers was hydrophobic and that electrostatic interaction did not participate in complex formation.

Influence of aggregation on the susceptibility of casein to proteolysis

The susceptibility of the casein in milk to proteolysis was shown to be greatly influenced by its state of aggregation. In normal milk, where the casein is largely in micellar form, the αs1- and β-caseins are almost inaccessible to proteolysis. On removal of the colloidal phosphate, the casein micelles disintegrate, rendering the components, especially the αs1-casein, accessible to proteolysis. The role of colloidal calcium phosphate in the casein micelle is believed to be that of a non-specific aggregating agent which can be effectively replaced by calcium. Dissolved colloidal phosphate can be effectively reformed by elevation of the pH of colloidal phosphate-free (CPF) milk before equilibrium dialysis. Addition of κ-casein to CPF milk also causes aggregation of the component caseins but the micelles formed are smaller than those of normal milk.

The behaviour of micellar β-casein differs considerably from that of micellar αs1-casein. The evidence suggests that part of the β-casein freely dissociates either outside or within the micelle when the temperature is reduced. The temperature dependence of the susceptibility of β-casein to proteolysis was similar in skim-milk and in solutions of sodium caseinate, and increased as the temperature was reduced. αs1-Casein was quite resistant to proteolysis in normal milk but became susceptible when the micelle structure was disrupted on removal of colloidal phosphate.

It is concluded that limited proteolysis may prove a valuable technique in the study of casein micelle structure.

Localization of glycosylated κ-casein in bovine casein micelles by lectin-labelled gold granules

The localization of glycosylated k-casein in isolated bovine casein micelles was investigated at the ultrastructural level with gold granules labelled with the Ricinus communis lectin specific for galactose. No evidence was obtained for the presence of glycosylated k-casein on the surface of glutaraldehyde-fixed micelles whether or not they had been treated with neuraminidase. Glycosylated k-casein was mainly located in the bridging network interconnecting the micelles and appeared to be loosely associated with the micelles. When thin sections of micelles were marked, no clear-cut evidence was observed for the presence of intramicellar glycosylated k-casein.

The temperature-dependent dissociation of β-casein from bovine casein micelles and complexes

The temperature-dependent dissociation of β-casein from the casein micelles of milk and from the soluble casein complexes of colloidal phosphate-free (CPF) milk was investigated by high-speed centrifugation and gel-filtration. The percentage of the total casein in supernatants prepared by high-speed centrifugation of mid-lactation milks increased from approximately 6 to 15% on cooling the milks from 30 to 5 °C; β-casein accounted for about 46% of this increase, while αs-and κ-casein constituted 30 and 23%, respectively. On gel-filtration both of skim-milk and CPF milk on Sepharose 2B at 0, 2, 5, 10 and 25 °C, maximum amounts of free β-casein (c. 60% of total) were obtained at 5 °C. The remainder of the β-casein appeared to be more strongly bound to the αs- and κ-casein and may be involved in the internal cohesion of casein micelles. The free β-casein of both milk preparations appeared to be in equilibrium with the bound β-casein. On Sephadex G-200 columns at 5 °C, approximately 5 and 60% of the β-casein of skim-milk and CPF milk, respectively, was eluted in the free form in the expected position for a globular protein of molecular weight about 200000. At low temperatures, particularly at 5 °C, colloidal phosphate appeared to play an integrating role in the association of over half the total β-casein with the other casein components of native micelles. However, when the equilibrium between micellar and free β-casein was disturbed by gel-filtration on Sepharose 2B, the presence of colloidal phosphate did not prevent the release of most of the β-casein from casein micelles. Some problems encountered in the use of densitometry for the estimation of individual caseins on electropherograms are described.

Effect on the composition and properties of casein micelles of interaction with ionic materials

The effect on the composition and properties of casein micelles of the binding of ionic materials which accelerate the coagulation of milk on rennet treatment, was investigated. When considered in terms of their relative charge concentration, all the materials tested caused similar effects. The casein, inorganic phosphate and Ca contents of the micelles increased slightly. Micelle hydration decreased as additive binding increased. Casein and Ca dissociation on cooling increased at low concentrations of bound material, then progressively decreased at higher concentrations. The mean size of micelles and their electrophoretic mobility was little affected by bound ionic materials. The aggregation of the casein complexes in colloidal calcium phosphate-free milk was markedly increased by adding ionic materials, the efficiencies of these additives paralleling their efficiencies in accelerating the coagulation of milk by rennet. The results suggested that the ionic materials were bound in the interior of the casein micelles and promoted aggregation after rennet treatment by shielding charged groups, thus increasing the micellar hydrophobicity.

A study of the properties of dissociated bovine casein micelles

Although casein micelles are disrupted by removal of Ca, individual caseins remain aggregated in sub-micellar casein aggregates or sub-units. These sub-units have been studied by: (1) the use of gel filtration on Sepharose 4B at 6, 20 and 37°C at pH 6·7 and 0·1 ionic strength, (2) ultracentrifugation and (3) electron microscopy. At 37°C the protein composition of the sub-units varied across the gel-filtration peak, with κ-casein being eluted towards the leading edge and the ratio of αs1- to β-casein being almost constant across the peak. Re-chromatography of the protein from the leading edge of this peak gave a new wide peak with the κ-casein again being eluted towards the leading edge. However, αs1-casein was eluted before β-casein in the leading edge of the new peak. Prior treatment of the casein micelles by dispersion with 6 m-urea solution, precipitation with acid or reduction with 2-mercaptoethanol did not alter the gel-filtration pattern. An examination of the purified casein components and their mixtures showed that a 1:1 ratio mixture of αs1- and β-casein had the same peak maximum elution volume as casein micelle sub-units. κ-Casein by itself eluted at the void volume of the gel-filtration column, but after admixture with a sample of small micelles it eluted at the leading edge of the sub-unit peak and was indistinguishable from the κ-casein normally present. These results suggest that the sub-units are in equilibrium with their component caseins and that their size distribution is determined by only those factors (such as protein concentration, pH, temperature and ionic strength) which determine the strength of association between the casein components. The results from electron microscopy and ultracentrifugation support these conclusions.

The specificity for κ-casein as the stabilizer of αs-casein and β-casein. I. Replacement of κ-casein by other proteins

The specificity of the interaction betweenκ-casein,αs-casein andβ-casein which forms the basis of micelle stabilization was studied by investigating the extent to whichκ-casein could be replaced by other proteins. Of those tested, only gelatin replacedκ-casein and even it was only 2·5% (w/v) as effective and required a long pre-incubation period. The micelles formed by each ofκ-casein and gelatin withαs-casein and Ca2+were of a similar size to the casein—Ca complexes which compose natural micelles. Gelatin also formed complexes withαs- and withβ-casein at 30°C in the absence of CaCl2. Evidence was obtained that the interactions between gelatin and the caseins had a much stronger ionic component than had those betweenκ-casein and the other caseins. It was concluded that the interactions betweenκ-casein andαs- andβ-caseins which lead to micelle formation are highly specific and probably involve definite sites in each molecule.

The effect of the chemical structure of additives on the coagulation of casein micelle suspensions by rennet

Casein micelles in milk-salts solution adsorbed charged detergents and highly-charged polypeptides strongly, neutral detergents less strongly and low molecular-weight amines weakly. A tetra-amine was adsorbed more strongly than a tri-amine. The extent of adsorption of proteins tended to rise as the molecular weight increased. Glycerol and lactate were adsorbed to a limited extent but dextran and α-ketoglutarate were not adsorbed at all. Proline was partly adsorbed, indicating that hydrophobic binding sites were available, and caused some disruption of the casein micelles. Additives were bound to approximately the same extent by casein micelles and rennet coagula. The proportions adsorbed were constant over at least 10-fold ranges of concentration. Additives which increased the rennet clotting time (RCT) acted by binding Ca2+. Most additives decreased the RCT, the extent increasing with the amount adsorbed and the positive charge on the additive. The greatest reduction in RCT was observed with those additives which had positively-charged and hydrophobic moieties and bound most strongly to casein micelles. Of the additives tested, only sodium dodecyl sulphate affected the enzymic action of rennet. The reduction in RCT may have resulted from the neutralization of the negative charge of the micelles or enhancement of their hydrophobicity, favouring hydrophobic interactions between the particles.

Factors affecting the viscosity of caseinates in dispersions of high concentrations

The physical effects of various cations in caseinate dispersions of high concentrations were investigated over a range of temperature and pH.

With calcium and strontium the temperature-viscosity relationships of the caseinates were abnormal in that the viscosity decreased rapidly from 30 to about 40 °C and a gel formed at temperatures in the region of 50–60 °C. On cooling, the gel reliquefied. No gel formed with barium, aluminium or magnesium. On cooling, magnesium preparations separated into 2 phases.

The supernatant phase from the magnesium caseinate and a corresponding phase prepared by centrifuging the calcium caseinate showed depletion ofα-casein and enrichment ofκ-casein andβ-casein. The supernatant phase from the calcium caseinate showed the reversible gel formation on heating. The magnesium supernatant phase did not.κ-Casein and a mixture ofκ- andβ-caseins gave reversible gels at similar levels of calcium and pH.

For reversible gel formation to occur, calcium caseinate was required to be in fairly high concentration, to have a calcium content of about 1·0% of the protein and to be within the pH limits 5·2–6·0. The temperature at which gelation occurred was affected by the concentration of calcium and protein and by pH.

The behaviour of the material was compared with that of methyl cellulose with and without addition of urea.

Some potential commercial applications of the findings on viscosity relationships are outlined.

Incorporation of individual casein constituents into casein aggregates cross-linked by colloidal calcium phosphate in artificial casein micelles

Artificial casein micelles were prepared at a casein concentration of 2·5% with 10–40 mM-Ca, 12–27 mM-phosphate and 10 mM-citrate and cross-linking of casein by colloidal Ca phosphate (CCP) was examined. No casein aggregates cross-linked by CCP were formed at 10 mM-Ca, 12 mM-phosphate and 10 mM-citrate, which are the approximate concentrations found in the soluble phase of bovine milk. Although the amounts of casein aggregates cross-linked by CCP and of colloidal inorganic phosphate increased with increasing Ca and phosphate concentrations, the effect was not uniform. The incorporation rates of individual casein constituents into casein aggregates cross-linked by CCP were in the order > > β-casein. This was the reverse of the order of dissociation rates during dialysis of casein aggregates cross-linked by CCP reported previously.

Moving boundary electrophoresis of native and rennet-treated casein micelles

The electrokinetic potential of bovine casein micelles was determined under a variety of conditions using moving boundary electrophoresis. The technique used allowed sharp stable boundaries to be formed without addition of density gradient-forming materials. Casein micelles are negatively charged and in any one milk sample all micelles had similar electrophoretic mobilities. The electrokinetic potential of micelles was markedly reduced by the action of rennet and to a lesser extent by a decrease in temperature from 30 to 6°C. Addition of sucrose to milk caused a small increase in the electrokinetic potential. Addition of anionic detergent to milk increased both the electrokinetic potential and the rennet coagulation time. Addition of cationic detergent caused a reduction in both these quantities, promoted syneresis of the rennet coagulum and caused coagulation in the absence of rennet if present in concentrations exceeding about 10 mM. Alteration of cation activities by addition of salts to milk caused complex changes, either increasing or decreasing the electrokinetic potential. The data obtained are most readily explained by a model for the casein micelle in which some, but not necessarily all, of the κ-casein is located at the micelle surface.

The interaction of bovine milk caseins with the detergent sodium dodecyl sulphate. II. The effect of detergent binding on spectral properties of caseins

The dissociation of casein aggregates by the detergent sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) gave rise to difference spectra and these spectra were characteristic for each of the different types of casein. Increase in absorption by the chromophore groups, tyrosine and tryptophan, when αs1- and β-casein aggregates were dissociated indicated binding of the detergent at regions of the molecule containing these residues. A decrease in absorption when κ-casein was dissociated indicated that the tyrosine and tryptophan residues were not in the region of the molecule to which the detergent was bound and that in the κ-casein aggregate these residues were in a more hydrophobic environment. Peaks on the difference spectra were obtained at 280 and 288 nm for αs1-casein and 284 and 291 nm for β-casein and troughs at 278 and 286 nm for κ-casein. The difference spectrum reached a maximum value when the αsl- and β-casein aggregates were dissociated and the further binding of SDS did not alter this value. The large negative change in the difference spectrum of κ-casein did not occur until after most of the aggregates were dissociated and did not reach a maximum until binding with SDS was complete. The value obtained for ΔOD was found to be temperature-dependent for β-casein-SDS interaction, but not for αs1- and κ-casein. Changes in spectra were also observed when αs1- and κ-casein interacted to form aggregates. The data obtained confirmed the importance of hydrophobic binding in casein aggregate formation and indicated the possible involvement of tyrosine and tryptophan residues in this binding.

Density-gradient electrophoresis of native and of rennet-treated casein micelles

Analytical electrophoresis of native and of rennet-treated casein micelles was carried out at 26 and at 5°C in a sucrose density gradient in a medium of the same ionic composition as milk. Under normal circumstances, the micelles were negatively charged and showed little heterogeneity in the electric field, the fastestmoving ones having at 26°C a mobility not more than 30% greater than that of the slowest. Native micelles were more highly charged at 5 than at 26°C; at each temperature, the mobility was approximately halved by rennet treatment. The results suggest that the effects of rennet treatment and of alterations in temperature on the tendency of the micelles to clot can be entirely explained as being caused by changes in charge.

The determination of the zeta potential of casein micelles

The principle of moving boundary electrophoresis has been employed for the measurement of the electrophoretic mobility and subsequent calculation of zeta potential of bovine casein micelles. The zeta potential of casein micelles was observed to increase with increase in temperature (from 10 to 50 °C) and to decrease with decrease in pH. Heat treatment of milk between 90 °C/30 min and 135 °C/50 min had no significant effect on zeta potential. The zeta potential of casein micelles during rennet action decreases until all the κ-casein has been cleaved by the enzyme.

The results of this study indicate that electrostatic interactions alone are not sufficient for an understanding of the absolute stability of casein micelles.

Casein micelle structure: location of κ-casein

The effect of heat treatment on the rennet coagulation times (RCTs) of various casein–whey protein systems, the effect of pre-renneting centrifugal serum on the RCT of casein subsequently mixed with such serum, the influence of repeated centrifugation and resuspension at constant protein level on the RCT of such suspensions, and the rate and completeness of the hydrolysis of sialic acid in micellar and non-micellar caseins, all lead to the conclusion that κ-casein does not occur in milk in 2 functionally different states, as proposed by Parry & Carroll (1969).

Electrophoretic mobility of casein micelles

A simplified moving boundary electrophoresis technique has been developed for the measurement of the electrophoretic mobility of casein micelles. The zeta potentials of casein micelles from different skim-milk samples were calculated using Henry's equation and shown to decrease with decrease in pH between pH 6.9 and 5.3 and to increase with increase in temperature between 10 and 45 °C. Neither severe heat treatment (up to 135 °C for 51 min) nor centrifugal fractionation of micelles into different micelle size ranges had any significant effect on zeta potential. The ionic composition of the serum phase has been shown to be extremely important in determining the electrophoretic mobility. Casein micelles electrophoresed through milk ultrafiltrate consistently gave a lower mobilities than the same micelles centrifuged through milk centrifugate. The results are discussed in relation to present theories of casein micelle structure; these theories do not accommodate all of the observations.

The acceleration by cationic materials of the coagulation of casein micelles by rennet

Three cationic materials markedly reduced the rennet clotting time of casein micelle suspensions, the efficacy of each being primarily dependent on the charge and the amount absorbed by the micelles. The reduction in coagulation time was unaffected by components of the milk serum other than salts. No enzymic action by lysozyme on casein micelles was detected. All materials acted by the same mechanism, increasing the affinity of rennet for the micelles and accelerating the aggregation phase. Coagulation did not occur until a minimum amount of κ-casein had been hydrolysed to para-κ-casein. All additives increased the proportion of added rennet retained by the casein in the coagulum. The results indicated that coagulation occurs by specific interactions between micelles modified by rennet.

Electroacoustic determination of size and zeta potential of casein micelles in skim milk

Measurements of the zeta potential and particle size of casein micelles in skim milk suspensions at natural and lower pH have been made using the technique of electroacoustics. This technique requires no dilution or change of environment of the casein micelles. The zeta potential obtained at natural pH for a commercial skim milk suspension was −18 mV; it became less negative with decreasing pH. The median particle size observed at natural pH for a commercial skim milk suspension was 0·2 εm, in good agreement with previously reported values. The particle size increased as the pH was decreased.

On the mechanism of milk clotting by rennin

Two possible hypotheses for the mechanism of milk clotting were tested. The results obtained constituted strong evidence against one and suggested that the second is improbable. Milk was separated into a 5-fold-concentrated casein micelle suspension and milk serum. Pre-renneting of the serum did not reduce the rate of clotting on subsequent addition to the micelle suspension whether or not the conditions were such that the para-κ-casein became extensively aggregated. Washing of casein micelles up to 3 times with milk dialysate at 23°C extracted very little casein from the micelles and did not increase the clotting time of micelles resuspended to about the same concentration as in milk. The results appear to constitute decisive evidence against the hypothesis of milk clotting proposed by Parry & Carroll (1969). S-carboxymethyl-κ-casein, S-carboxymethyl-κ-casein containing 2·5 dimethylaminonaphthalene sulphonyl residues per mole, and rennin-treated dimethylaminonaphthalene sulphonated-S-carboxymethyl-κ-casein all bound Ca to the same extent at 30°C and pH 6·5, over the range 0·5–15·3 mM-CaCl2. This adds support to existing evidence that milk clotting does not involve formation of Ca bridges between casein micelles.

Sonodisruption of re-assembled casein micelles at different pH values

Casein solutions with different pH values were sonicated at a frequency of 35kHz and increasing acoustic powers. As the sonication power increased, turbidity of solutions and particle diameter decreased at any given pH value, suggesting particles disruption due to the ultrasonic treatment. The magnitude of decrease in re-assembled micelles diameter was greater at a higher pH, indicating an interaction between pH and sonication power in sonodissociation. This interaction is attributed to a looser structure of micelles at higher pH values which increases the efficiency of ultrasonic disruption and not directly to the increased cavitation efficiency. We argue that increased cavitation efficiency with increasing sonication power, which enhances shear forces is the most likely reason for sonodisruption of re-assembled casein micelles.

Effects of the environmental factors on the casein micelle structure studied by cryo transmission electron microscopy and small-angle x-ray scattering/ultrasmall-angle x-ray scattering

Casein micelles are colloidal protein-calcium-transport complexes whose structure has not been unequivocally elucidated. This study used small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and ultrasmall angle x-ray scattering (USAXS) as well as cryo transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) to provide fine structural details on their structure. Cryo-TEM observations of native casein micelles fractionated by differential centrifugation showed that colloidal calcium phosphate appeared as nanoclusters with a diameter of about 2.5 nm. They were uniformly distributed in a homogeneous tangled web of caseins and were primarily responsible for the intensity distribution in the SAXS profiles at the highest q vectors corresponding to the internal structure of the casein micelles. A specific demineralization of casein micelles by decreasing the pH from 6.7 to 5.2 resulted in a reduced granular aspect of the micelles observed by cryo-TEM and the existence of a characteristic point of inflection in SAXS profiles. This supports the hypothesis that the smaller substructures detected by SAXS are colloidal calcium phosphate nanoclusters rather than putative submicelles.

Influence of the temperature of salt brine on salt uptake by Ragusano cheese

The influence of temperature (12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 degrees C) of saturated brine on salt uptake by 3.8-kg experimental blocks of Ragusano cheese during 24 d of brining was determined. Twenty-six 3.8-kg blocks were made on each of three different days. All blocks were labeled and weighed prior to brining. One block was sampled and analyzed prior to brine salting. Five blocks were placed into each of five different brine tanks at different temperatures. One block was removed from each brine tank after 1, 4, 8, 16, and 24 d of brining, weighed, sampled, and analyzed for salt and moisture content. The weight loss by blocks of cheese after 24 d of brining was higher, with increasing brine temperature, and represented the net effect of moisture loss and salt uptake. The total salt uptake and moisture loss increased with increasing brine temperature. Salt penetrates into cheese through the moisture phase within the pore structure of the cheese. Porosity of the cheese structure and viscosity of the water phase within the pores influenced the rate and extent of salt penetration during 24 d of brining. In a previous study, it was determined that salt uptake at 18 degrees C was faster in 18% brine than in saturated brine due to higher moisture and porosity of the exterior portion of the cheese. In the present study, moisture loss occurred from all cheeses at all temperatures and most of the loss was from the exterior portion of the block during the first 4 d of brining. This loss in moisture would be expected to decrease porosity of the exterior portion and act as a barrier to salt penetration. The moisture loss increased with increasing brine temperature. If this decrease in porosity was the only factor influencing salt uptake, then it would be expected that the cheeses at higher brine temperature would have had lower salt content. However, the opposite was true. Brine temperature must have also impacted the viscosity of the aqueous phase of the cheese. Cheese in lower temperature brine would be expected to have higher viscosity of the aqueous phase and slower salt uptake, even though the cheese at lower brine temperature should have had a more porous structure (favoring faster uptake) than cheese at higher brine temperature. Therefore, changing brine concentration has a greater impact on cheese porosity, while changing brine temperature has a larger impact on viscosity of the aqueous phase of the cheese within the pores in the cheese.

Casein interactions studied by the surface plasmon resonance technique

Surface plasmon resonance technique was investigated for the first time to study the apparent hydrophobicity and association properties of the major bovine caseins: alpha(s)-(alpha(s1)- and alpha(s2)-caseins in a 4:1 proportion), beta-, and kappa-caseins. The apparent hydrophobicities of the caseins were evaluated by a new method based on the binding level of casein on a hydrophobic sensor chip, and kinetic and equilibrium affinity constants were determined for the following casein interactions: alpha(s)/alpha(s), alpha(s)/beta, alpha(s)/kappa, beta/beta, and beta/kappa, using a sensor chip modified with covalent immobilized caseins. The study by surface plasmon resonance technology of these casein interactions under different conditions (pH, ionic strength, calcium concentration, chemical modification) demonstrated that, at neutral pH, electrostatic repulsive forces play an important role since an increase in ionic strength of the medium resulted in a stronger interaction. When charge repulsions were reduced by either acidification, increase in ionic strength, or dephosphorylation, casein interactions were reinforced, presumably due to weak attractive forces. Moreover, in this molecular model, we showed that addition of calcium greatly increased the binding response between the most phosphorylated caseins and that the added calcium (2 mM) participated directly in the formation of bridges between the phosphate groups of the casein molecules.

Temperature effect on structure-opacity relationships of nonfat mozzarella cheese

Our objective was to determine the effect of heating on the structure of nonfat Mozzarella cheese and then to relate changes in structure to changes in cheese opacity. Cheese was made according to a direct-acid, stirred-curd procedure. Cheese samples, at 4 degrees C, were taken on d 1 and placed into glass bottles, which were sealed and heated. Once the cheese reached 10 degrees C or 50 degrees C, the bottles were placed on a scanner and color values measured. Samples were also taken on d 1 for chemical, micro, and ultrastructural analyses. Applying heat increased cheese opacity. At 50 degrees C the cheese was more opaque than at 10 degrees C. The increase in temperature induced changes in cheese structure. Larger high-density protein aggregates and increased protein concentration in the protein matrix were observed in cheese at 50 degrees C. Applied heat would favor hydrophobic interactions, and possibly, re-association of beta-casein and calcium with the protein matrix, promoting protein-to-protein interactions. Thus, the protein matrix contracts, occupying less cheese matrix area, and microphase separation occurs, causing serum pockets to grow in size, and microstructural heterogeneity to increase. It is proposed that the increased size of aggregates and heterogeneity of the cheese at 50 degrees C promote light reflection, thus increasing cheese opacity. We concluded that applying heat alters protein interactions in the cheese matrix, manifested as changes in cheese structure. Such changes in structure help provide an understanding of changes in cheese opacity.

Electrosorption of pectin onto casein micelles

Pectin, a polysaccharide derived from plant cells of fruit, is commonly used as stabilizer in acidified milk drinks. To gain a better understanding of the way that pectin stabilizes these drinks, we studied the adsorption and layer thickness of pectin on casein micelles in skim milk dispersions. Dynamic light scattering was used to measure the layer thickness of adsorbed pectin onto casein micelles in situ during acidification. The results indicate that the adsorption of pectin onto casein micelles is multilayered and takes place at and below pH 5.0. Renneting, i.e., cleaving-off kappa-casein from the casein micelles, did not alter the adsorption pH. It did, however, show that pectin arrests the rennet-induced flocculation of casein micelles below pH 5.0. From the findings we concluded the attachment of pectin onto casein micelles is driven by electrosorption. Adsorption measurements confirmed the multilayered nature of the adsorption of pectin onto casein micelles. Both the adsorbed amount and the layer thickness increased with decreasing pH in the relevant range 3.5-5.0. The phase behavior of a casein micelles/pectin mixture was determined and could be explained in terms of thermodynamic incompatibility being relevant above pH 5.0 and adsorption, leading to either stabilization and bridging, being relevant below pH 5.0. The results confirm that electrosorption is the driving force for the adsorption of pectin onto casein micelles.

Association of mixtures of the two major forms of beta-casein from human milk

Human milk beta-casein (CN) is unique in that it may be phosphorylated at any level from zero (beta-CN-0P) to five (beta-CN-5P) organic phosphates per molecule. The 2P and 4P forms are the major components, with about 30 to 35% each. Here, we present the association properties of mixtures of these two moieties of human beta-CN. The aggregation patterns, as functions of temperature and ionic strength of these mixtures, generally follow those for the individual components. However, the mixtures yielded polymers with slightly different properties, which indicates extensive interaction between the two. Some properties of the mixtures were more like those for the 2P form, such as association in low salt buffer to give a peak with a sedimentation coefficient, s20,w, of approximately 11 S, in contrast to the 2P form alone with a peak of approximately 13 S and 4P alone with only a small amount of material with s20,w greater than 2 S at 27 degrees C. The solubility and interactions in the presence of Ca2+ ions were intermediate but more like the 4P form. A protein-concentration dependence for s20,w was seen, and laser light scattering indicated that there was an increase in size and/or a change in shape as the protein concentration increased. From the results, it is apparent that submicellar oligomers are probably formed by rapidly established equilibrium association reactions. The presence of an equal amount of the 2P form along with the 4P form does not appear to be a disadvantage in casein micelle formation and function.

Comparative aspects of milk caseins

The caseins comprise the major protein component of milk of most mammals and are secreted as micelles that also carry high concentrations of calcium. They are phosphoproteins that represent the products of four genes, equivalent to those that encode the bovine alpha s1, alpha s2, beta, and kappa-caseins. There is considerable variation in the relative proportions of the particular caseins across species. The primary sequences of the alpha s1, alpha s2, and beta-caseins also show considerable species variation consistent with rapidly evolving genes that are proposed to have a common precursor. In contrast, the kappa-caseins exhibit features that demonstrate a separate origin and function where they are proposed to stabilise the micelle structure. This review focuses on comparative aspects of the caseins across a number of species for which information is now available.