How can we compare multispecies livestock rearing households? - an analysis of the impact of health and production parameters on multispecies livestock rearing outcomes

BACKGROUND

The Central Dry Zone (CDZ) of Myanmar is a critical region of livestock production. This region supports 10 million people whose livelihoods depend on small-scale, dry-land agriculture, but it is also one of the poorest regions of Myanmar. Little is known about the constraints to animal health in multi-species livestock farms in this region or the relationships between husbandry practices and measures of the success of livestock rearing such as income, and successful health management.

RESULTS

In this study, we describe associations between husbandry practices and animal health problems affecting different body systems. We also develop a biosecurity and livestock disease prevention index by taking account of different activities (i.e. treatment, vaccination, reducing disease transmission practice, sanitation) that can be compared between livestock species, estimate the income generated from livestock production, and identify factors influencing these parameters. Cross-sectional study was used to collect data on livestock production and health from cattle (N = 382), sheep, goat (N = 303) and village chicken (N = 327) farmers in 40 villages of the CDZ. Survey-design based techniques and F-statistics, ordinal, and binomial regression were used for data analysis. Our results indicate that a significant proportion of farmers' income in the CDZ comes from crop production (43.2%) and livestock production (23.1%) and the rest of the farmers' income is derived from trading, supported by other relatives and employment. Our results indicate that animal health management practices, herd/flock size, and experience of farmers contributed significantly to the presence of animal health problems, in particular related to the physical, respiratory and digestive systems. Animal health management was usually conducted in traditional ways. Among different livestock species farms, cattle farms (cattle median BDPI: 45; IQR: 35-55) practised better biosecurity than other livestock species farms (i.e. small ruminant and village chicken farms) (small ruminant and village chicken BDPI: 10; IQR: 0-20). Interestingly, the ownership groups (i.e. rearing singly or multispecies) did not show any impact on biosecurity and disease prevention index of the farms.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified good practice households and these findings will be useful for designing intervention trials to improve the production and health outcomes evaluated in this study.

Production costs, economic viability, and risks associated with compost bedded pack, freestall, and drylot systems in dairy farms

The adoption of intensive production systems, such as compost bedded pack (CB) and freestall (FS), has increased recently in tropical regions, mainly replacing the drylot system (DL). Thus, our objectives were to compare production costs, economic outcomes, and risk of dairy operations in CB, FS, and DL systems. We collected data from 2 181 Brazilian farms over 120 consecutive months; 960 farms (144 CB, 133 FS, and 683 DL) met our selection criteria. All costs were modeled for two animal production categories: milking cows and non-milking animals. We used a regression model that included linear and quadratic parameters, and we added the production system as a fixed variable for all parameters tested with this model. Consultant, year, herd, and herd × system interaction were included in the model as random variables. Further, we simulated annual technical and economic indexes per farm. In addition, we developed a risk analysis to measure the probability of negative profit of the farms based on a 14-year historical series of milk prices. All production costs were affected by the system. Feed, medicine, sundry, and labor costs per farm per year were greater in DL farms when milk yield (MY) was greater than 3 500 L/day. The variables such as milk yield, assets per liter, asset turnover rate, return on assets, operational profit, profit per cow, and per liter of milk variables were greater in CB and FS with high MY (>3 000 L/day). Nonetheless, DL had the greatest economic indexes with a lower MY (<3 000 L/day), lower operating costs, and greater economic outcomes. The risk analysis indicated that the probability of negative profit (risk) was reduced for CB and FS as MY increased, but DL had the lowest risk with low MY levels. In conclusion, we suggest DL as the most attractive system for farms with MY between 150 and 3 000 L of milk/day as the DL had the lowest risk and the greatest profit in this production scale. Despite similar outcomes for CB and FS in most of the farms, the profit per cow ($/year), assets turnover rate (%), risk (%) and expected profit ($/L) analysis indicated that CB could be recommended for farms with MY greater than 3 200 L of milk/day, whereas based on risk (%) and expected profit ($/L), FS would be the most profitable system in dairies producing more than 8 000 L of milk/day per farm.

Characteristics of Livestock Husbandry and Management Practice in the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar

The central dry zone of Myanmar is the area with the highest density of small-scale livestock farmers under harsh environmental condition. In this study, we describe and quantify ownership patterns for various livestock species and characterised management and husbandry practices of small-scale farmers. In addition, we identify the husbandry factors associated with selected outcome indicators, ‘herd or flock size’ and ‘purpose of rearing’. A total of 613 livestock farmers in 40 villages were interviewed. Multispecies rearing was common with 51.7% of farmers rearing more than one livestock species. Rearing animals to be sold as adults for slaughter (meat production) was more common for small ruminants (98.1%) and chickens (99.8%) compared to cattle (69.8%). Larger cattle herds were more likely to practice grazing (p < 0.001) and to employ labour from outside the household to manage cattle than medium or small herds (p = 0.03). Patterns of grazing differed significantly between seasons (p < 0.01) for cattle, but not for small ruminants and village chicken. Overall, multispecies rearing and species-specific husbandry practices are used to raise livestock under harsh environmental conditions. Our results reveal that herd/flock size and purpose of rearing across different livestock species were significantly associated with feeding and housing practices and experience of farmers.

Seasonal trends in milk quality in Ireland between 2007 and 2011

The objectives of this study were to evaluate annual and seasonal trends in bulk tank somatic cell count (SCC), total bacterial count (TBC), and laboratory pasteurization count (LPC) in Ireland between 2007 and 2011 (inclusive), and to compare trends based on herd type and herd size. The unadjusted median SCC and TBC of all records were 266,000 and 17,000 cfu/mL, respectively. Data were transformed to log values and analyzed using a mixed model. Fixed effects included milk processor, year, month, and total monthly milk volume; milk producer was fitted as a random variable. After analysis, means were back transformed for interpretation. Annual SCC increased slightly from 259,000 cells/mL in 2007 to a peak of 272,647 cells/mL in 2009 and then declined slightly thereafter. Although statistically significant changes in annual TBC are probably not biologically relevant, values ranged between 23,922 and 26,290 cfu/mL. Annual LPC peaked in 2008 (265 cfu/mL), declined in 2009, and increased thereafter. Monthly mean SCC of all records increased from April onward, with the greatest increases seen from October to December, when the majority of cows entered late lactation. Monthly mean TBC exhibited a seasonal trend, whereby TBC was greatest at the beginning and end of the year, coinciding with winter housing. Seasonal milk production herds (n=8,002 herds) calve all cows in spring (February to April), whereas split-calving herds (n=1,829 herds) calve cows in the spring and autumn. From February to September, monthly SCC was lower for seasonal herds than for split-calving herds, whereas SCC was lower for split-calving herds for the remaining months. During winter (October to March), split-calving herds had lower monthly TBC than seasonal herds, most likely because of stricter regulations imposed upon them. Herd size was approximated using total annual milk production figures. Across all months, larger herds had lower SCC and TBC compared with smaller herds. No obvious improvements in milk quality were seen between 2007 and 2011. Farmers have the opportunity to improve milk quality by reducing bulk tank SCC in late lactation and by imposing stricter hygiene practices at the beginning and end of the year to overcome the seasonal variation of bulk tank TBC.

Association of season and herd size with somatic cell count for cows in Irish, English, and Welsh dairy herds

The aims of this study were to describe associations of time of year, and herd size with cow somatic cell count (SCC) for Irish, English, and Welsh dairy herds. Random samples of 497 and 493 Irish herds, and two samples of 200 English and Welsh (UK) herds were selected. Random effects models for the natural logarithm of individual cow test day SCC were developed using data from herds in one sub-dataset from each country. Data from the second sub-datasets were used for cross validation. Baseline model results showed that geometric mean cow SCC (GSCC) in Irish herds was highest from February to August, and ranged from 111,000cells/mL in May to 61,000cells/mL in October. For cows in UK herds, GSCC ranged from 84,000cells/mL in February and June, to 66,000cells/mL in October. The results highlight the importance of monitoring cow SCC during spring and summer despite low bulk milk SCC at this time for Irish herds. GSCC was lowest in Irish herds of up to 130 cows (63,000cells/mL), and increased for larger herds, reaching 68,000cells/mL in herds of up to 300 cows. GSCC in UK herds was lowest for herds of 130-180 cows (60,000cells/mL) and increased to 63,000cells/mL in herds of 30 cows, and 68,000cells/mL in herds of 300 cows. Importantly, these results suggest expansion may be associated with increased cow SCC, highlighting the importance of appropriate management, to benefit from potential economies of scale, in terms of udder health.

Dairy Farm Cost Efficiency

A stochastic cost equation was estimated for US dairy farms using national data from the production year 2000 to determine how farmers might reduce their cost of production. Cost of producing a unit of milk was estimated into separate frontier (efficient) and inefficiency components, with both components estimated as a function of management and causation variables. Variables were entered as impacting the frontier component as well as the efficiency component of the stochastic curve because a priori both components could be impacted. A factor that has an impact on the cost frontier was the number of hours per day the milking facility is used. Using the milking facility for more hours per day decreased frontier costs; however, inefficiency increased with increased hours of milking facility use. Thus, farmers can decrease costs with increased utilization of the milking facility, but only if they are efficient in this strategy. Parlors compared with stanchions used for milking did not decrease frontier costs, but decreased costs because of increased efficiency, as did the use of a nutritionist. Use of rotational grazing decreased frontier costs but also increased inefficiency. Older farmers were less efficient.

Effect of region and herd size on dairy herd performance parameters

Differences in selected Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) performance parameters among regions and herds of different size categories were evaluated. DHI records from herds in 37 states were grouped into North, Midsouth, and South regions, and six herd size categories (20 to 49, 50 to 99, 100 to 149, 150 to 249, 250 to 449, and > or = 450 cows). The North region had higher income over feed costs (IOFC); milk, fat, and protein rolling herd averages; summit milk; standardized 150-d milk; and percentage of cows in milk, than the other regions. These variables were lowest for the South region. Cost/45.4 kg of milk, days open, days dry, and somatic cell counts were lowest in the North region and were highest in the South. Percentage of cows entering and leaving the herd were highest in the Midsouth and were lowest in the South. Larger herds had higher total feed cost, IOFC, milk, fat, and protein rolling herd averages, summit milk, standardized 150-d milk, percentage of cows entering and percentage leaving the herd than smaller herds. Larger herds had lower somatic cell counts than smaller herds. Cost/45.4 kg of milk, days dry, days open, days in milk, and percentage of cows in milk did not show clear trends among different herd sizes. There were significant interactions between region and herd size for some of the variables.

Characterizing Biosecurity, Health, and Culling During Dairy Herd Expansions,

Our objectives were to investigate strategies for biosecurity, expansion, and culling for expanding dairy herds in the Upper Midwest. Eighteen dairies in Iowa and Wisconsin were visited, and dairy managers and veterinarians were interviewed to characterize five biosecurity practices, herd culling practices, vaccines administered, and ensuing disease status for the herds. The majority of herds that were interviewed failed to employ comprehensive biosecurity programs for incoming cattle. Nearly 60% of herds obtained cattle from sources for which it was difficult to document genetic backgrounds and health histories, fewer than half required health testing for incoming cattle, and approximately 50% quarantined new cattle on arrival. Despite high rates of vaccination for bovine viral diarrhea, all herd owners and managers indicated that herd biosecurity was compromised as a result of expansion. Half of the interviewed herds indicated that bovine viral diarrhea and papillomatous digital dermatitis were notable disease problems. Herds that obtained cattle with unknown backgrounds and health status experienced the largest number of diseases. Before expansion, the most frequently cited reasons for culling were reproductively unsound; low milk production; mastitis, poor udder health, and high SCC; during expansion, the strategic decision to cull cows for low milk production was used less often. In addition, the stochastic simulation model, DairyORACLE, was used to evaluate economic outcomes for several expansion alternatives. Five model scenarios studied were: base scenario (herd size was maintained) and four expansion scenarios--all paired combinations of heifer quality (high, low) and voluntary culling (implemented, not implemented). Culling for low milk production yielded an additional $23.29 annually (6-yr annuity) per cow, but on the basis of purchased replacements, no voluntary culling was most profitable. Purchasing high versus low quality replacement heifers for expansions returned an additional $113.54 annually ($681.24 total net present value) per heifer purchased. Many opportunities exist to improve cattle-related factors for dairy herd expansions, including the use of comprehensive biosecurity programs, realistic planning and budgeting for cattle purchases, and cost effective purchase and culling practices.

An overview of experiences of Wisconsin dairy farmers who modernized their operations

Wisconsin dairy producers who modernized their operations between 1994 and 1998 had positive feelings about their expansion experiences, accompanied by increased production and improved profitability and quality of life. The average herd in this survey experienced increased production during the 5-yr period studied. Nearly all producers were satisfied with their expansion experience. The negative effect on milk production normally associated with expansion was minimal for most years and did not exist if all herds were summarized together. Managing labor appeared to be the most daunting challenge facing producers following expansion. Respondents who built all new facilities observed higher production, greater labor efficiency, and satisfaction with measures of profitability and quality of life than respondents who modified facilities or added no new facilities. As herd size increased, milk production, labor efficiency, and satisfaction with herd performance, profitability, and quality of life increased. Producers who built all new facilities spent less time on farm work, more time managing employees, and had less difficulty finding, training, supervising, and keeping farm employees than producers who modified facilities or added new facilities to existing operations. Larger herds were associated with an increased reliance on nonfamily labor. Managing labor appears to be an easier task for managers of larger herds. The most difficult challenges for producers who modernized their operations were with labor management, financing, and loan procurement, construction and cost overruns, and feet and leg health. Difficulties with expansion differed little between expansion types (same type, some new, or all new facilities) or herd sizes.