Shunt infection and malfunction in patients with myelomeningocele

Impact of dual procedures: How combining VP shunt placement for hydrocephalus and myelomeningocele repair in newborns affects complication rates?

To discern the efficacy of simultaneous versus delayed VPS surgery in managing hydrocephalus linked with MMC repair: The debate over the concurrent or deferred placement of ventriculoperitoneal shunts (VPS) during myelomeningocele (MMC) repair in hydrocephalic neonates necessitates a nuanced evaluation of associated risks and benefits. While VPS placement can mitigate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks and minimize wound dehiscence post-MMC repair, it concurrently introduces potential hazards such as infections and shunt-related malfunctions. This prospective cohort study focused on144 newborns with spinal myelomeningocele and hydrocephalus. Divided into two groups based on the timing of dysraphism repair and VPS placement, 101 children underwent concurrent procedures, while 43 received deferred VPS insertion post-MMC closure. Female patients constituted 60% of the cohort, with lumbar lesions being predominant. The median age for MMC closure was three days. Analysis revealed that the deferred insertion group exhibited higher rates of shunt malfunctions, CSF leaks, and wound dehiscence compared to the concurrent insertion group. Although indications hinted at a potential increase in shunt infections in the immediate insertion group, statistical significance was lacking. The study established a statistically significant association between the timing of shunt insertion during MMC repair and specific outcomes, such as CSF leaks and wound dehiscence. The findings suggest that concurrent shunt insertion during MMC repair may reduce the incidence of these complications compared to deferred insertion. However, no substantial differences emerged in terms of shunt infection and malfunction, emphasizing the persistent challenges associated with these major complications.

Neurosurgical management of Myelomeningocele in premature infants: a case series

INTRODUCTION

Myelomeningocele (MMC) is the most common neural tube defect, but rarely seen in premature infants. Most centers advocate for closure of MMC within 24 h of birth. However, this is not always possible in severely premature infants. Given the rarity of this patient population, we aimed to share our institutional experience and outcomes of severely premature infants with MMC.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective, observational review of premature infants (≤ 32 weeks gestational age) identified through our multidisciplinary spina bifida clinic (1995-2021) and surgical logs. Descriptive statistics were compiled about this sample including timing of MMC closure and incidence of adverse events such as sepsis, CSF diversion, meningitis, and death.

RESULTS

Eight patients were identified (50% male) with MMC who were born ≤ 32 weeks gestational age. Mean gestational age of the population was 27.3 weeks (SD 3.5). Median time to MMC closure was 1.5 days (IQR = 1-80.8). Five patients were taken for surgery within the recommended 48 h of birth; 2 patients underwent significantly delayed closure (107 and 139 days); and one patient's defect epithelized without surgical intervention. Six of eight patients required permanent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diversion (2 patients were treated with ventriculoperitoneal shunting (VPS), three were treated with endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) with choroid plexus cauterization (CPC) and 1 patient treated with ETV; mean of 3 years after birth, ranging from 1 day to 16 years). Two patients required more than one permanent CSF diversion procedure. Two patients developed sepsis (defined as meeting at least 2/4 SIRS criteria). In both cases of sepsis, patients developed signs and symptoms more than 72 h after birth. Notably, both instances of sepsis occurred unrelated to operative intervention as they occurred before permanent MMC closure. Two patients had intraventricular hemorrhage (both grade III). No patients developed meningitis (defined as positive CSF cultures) prior to MMC closure. Median follow up duration was 9.7 years. During this time epoch, 3 patients died: Two before 2 years of age of causes unrelated to surgical intervention. One of the two patients with grade III IVH died within 24 h of MMC closure.

CONCLUSIONS

In our institutional experience with premature infants with MMC, some patients underwent delayed MMC closure. The overall rate of meningitis, sepsis, and mortality for preterm children with MMC was similar to MMC patients born at term.

Neurosurgical Management of Myelomeningocele in Premature Infants: A Case Series

Introduction

Myelomeningocele (MMC) is the most common neural tube defect, but rarely seen in premature infants. Most centers advocate for closure of MMC within 24 hours of birth. However, this is not always possible in severely premature infants. Given the rarity of this patient population, we aimed to share our institutional experience and outcomes of severely premature infants with MMC.

Methods

We performed a retrospective, observational review of premature infants (≤ 32 weeks gestational age) identified through our multidisciplinary spina bifida clinic (1995-2021) and surgical logs. Descriptive statistics were compiled about this sample including timing of MMC closure and incidence of adverse events such as sepsis, CSF diversion, meningitis, and death.

Results

Eight patients were identified (50% male) with MMC who were born ≤ 32 weeks gestational age. Mean gestational age of the population was 27.3 weeks (SD 3.5). Median time to MMC closure was 1.5 days (IQR = 1 -80.8). Five patients were taken for surgery within the recommended 48 hours of birth; 2 patients underwent significantly delayed closure (107 and 139 days); and one patient's defect epithelized without surgical intervention. Six of eight patients required permanent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diversion (2 patients were treated with ventriculoperitoneal shunting (VPS), three were treated with endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) with choroid plexus cauterization (CPC) and 1 patient treated with ETV; mean of 3 years after birth, ranging from 1 day to 16 years). Two patients required more than one permanent CSF diversion procedure. Two patients developed sepsis (defined as meeting at least 2/4 SIRS criteria), and 2 patients had intraventricular hemorrhage (both grade III). No patients developed meningitis (defined as positive CSF cultures) prior to MMC closure. Median follow up duration was 9.7 years. During this time epoch, 3 patients died: Two before 2 years of age of causes unrelated to surgical intervention. One of the two patients with grade III IVH died within 24 hours of MMC closure.

Conclusions

In our institutional experience with premature infants with MMC, some patients underwent delayed MMC closure. The overall rate of meningitis, sepsis, and mortality for preterm children with MMC was similar to MMC patients born at term.

Techniques to Reduce the Rate of Infection in Surgeries for Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunting in Adults

OBJECTIVE

Cerebrospinal fluid shunt placement is associated with high rates of infection. Multiple standardized protocols, particularly in pediatric populations, have been proposed to mitigate this infection rate. We sought to determine the effectiveness of a standardized shunt infection protocol in a large adult population.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of adults presenting for primary cerebrospinal fluid shunt placement from 2012 to 2022. The primary outcome of interest was shunt infection. The primary exposure of interest was implementation of the shunt protocol (began October 2015). Secondary exposures of interest included use and type of perioperative antibiotics and total operating room time.

RESULTS

In total, 820 patients were included, 140 before protocol implementation and 680 after protocol implementation. The overall number of infections over the study period was 15 (1.8% infection rate), with 8 infections preprotocol (5.7%) and 7 infections during the protocol period (1.0%). The infection protocol was associated with a decreased infection rate (odds rato [OR] 0.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.05-0.58, P = 0.002). Total operating room time (OR 1.38 per 30-minute increase, 95% CI 1.05-1.81, P = 0.021) was associated with increased infection rate. Patients who received antibiotics with primarily gram-positive coverage (cefazolin or equivalent) did not have significantly different odds of shunt infection as patients who received broad-spectrum coverage (OR 2.10, 95% CI 0.56-7.88, P = 0.274).

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of an evidence-based perioperative shunt infection protocol is an effective method to decrease shunt infections. Broad-spectrum perioperative antibiotics may not have greater efficacy than gram-positive only coverage, but more research is required.

Simple prenatal imaging predictors for postnatal cerebrospinal fluid diversion surgery in fetuses undergoing in utero surgery for spina bifida

OBJECTIVES

To determine simple prenatal imaging parameters that can easily be acquired to predict the need for postnatal CSF diversion (PCD) surgery in fetuses undergoing open fetal surgery for open spina bifida (OSB).

METHODS

All fetuses with OSB that underwent open fetal surgery between June 2017 and June 2021 with available follow-up outcomes were included. Imaging parameters including clivus-supraocciput angle (CSA) on magnetic resonance imaging, transcerebellar diameter (TCD) and lateral ventricle size (Vp) on ultrasound (US), were collected pre- and postoperatively. The requirement for PCD surgery was determined at 1 year of age. The predictive strength of each parameter was determined by Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis.

RESULTS

Among 36 babies eligible for the analyses, 41.7% required PCD by one year of age. Pre-operative Vp (AUC 0.71; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.54-0.88; p = 0.03), TCD (AUC 0.72; 95% CI 0.55-0.89; p = 0.02) and CSA (AUC 0.72; 95% CI 0.51-0.93; p = 0.04) were fair predictors for PCD surgery. After fetal surgery, TCD (AUC 0.93; 95% CI 0.83-1.00; p < 0.0001) and CSA (AUC 0.94; 95% CI 0.83-1.00; p = 0.0005) were outstanding predictors of PCD, whereas post-operative Vp was a fair predictor (AUC 0.71, 95% CI 0.54-0.88, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Post-operative CSA and TCD were outstanding predictors for the need for PCD surgery.

Current status and challenges of neurosurgical procedures for patients with myelomeningocele in real-world Japan

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the real-world status of neurosurgical treatment of myelomeningocele patients.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the real-world status of neurosurgical treatment of myelomeningocele patients, medical claims data provided by the Japan Medical Data Center (JMDC) were analyzed.

METHODS

The health claims data of 556 patients with myelomeningoceles from January 2005 to March 2020 were examined. The number of neurosurgical procedures, including myelomeningocele repair, tethered cord release, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt, CSF drainage, and endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV), was determined.

RESULTS

A total of 313 neurosurgical procedures were performed for 135 patients in 74 institutions during the study period. The shunt survival rate was most affected by shunts that were revised when the patient was less than 1 year old, which had a significantly lower survival rate than all of the initial shunts performed when the patient was less than on1 year old; the 1-year shunt survival rate was 35 vs 64% (P = 0.0102). The survival rate was significantly lower in patients younger than 1 year who had CSF drainage before shunting compared to those younger than 1 year who did not have CSF drainage before shunting; the 1-year shunt survival rate was 27 vs 59% (P = 0.0196), and 81% of patients remained free of tethered cord release 10 years later.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, a revised shunt of less than 1 year of age and CSF drainage before shunting were the factors that lowered the shunt survival rate in the real world for CSF shunts for hydrocephalus associated with myelomeningocele.

Cost analysis for mirabegron use in the treatment of children with neurogenic bladder

INTRODUCTION

Mirabegron is a beta-3 adrenergic receptor agonist that received FDA approval in 2021 to treat neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO) in children ages three years and older. Despite its safety and efficacy, access to mirabegron frequently remains restricted by payor coverage policies.

OBJECTIVE

This cost minimization study sought to determine the cost implications from a payor perspective of mirabegron use at different points in the treatment pathway for pediatric NDO.

STUDY DESIGN

A Markov decision analytic model was constructed to assess the costs for eight treatment strategies over a 10-year period, using six-month cycles (Table). Five strategies involve mirabegron use as first-, second-, third-, or fourth-line therapy. Two strategies, including the "base case," entail use of anticholinergic medications followed by onabotulinum toxin type A (Botox) injection and augmentation cystoplasty. A strategy involving first-line Botox was also modeled. The effectiveness, adverse event rates, attrition rates, and costs associated with each treatment option were obtained from the clinical literature and adjusted to a six-month cycle. Costs were adjusted to 2021-dollar value. A discount rate of 3% was used. To quantify uncertainty, costs and treatment transition probabilities were modeled as gamma and PERT distributions, respectively. One-way sensitivity analyses were performed. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) was conducted using a Monte Carlo simulation with 100,000 iterations. Analyses were performed using Treeage Pro (Healthcare Version).

RESULTS

The least costly strategy involved first-line mirabegron (expected cost $37,954). All strategies involving mirabegron were less costly than the base case ($56,417). On PSA, first-line mirabegron was the least costly strategy in 88.9% of cases (mean $37,604, 95% CI: $37,579-37,628); in 100% of cases, the least costly strategy involved mirabegron use. Cost savings associated with mirabegron use were attributable to decreased use of augmentation cystoplasty and Botox injections.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study to compare costs across multiple strategies involving mirabegron to treat pediatric NDO. Mirabegron use likely yields cost savings for the payor: the least costly strategy involved first-line mirabegron, and all pathways incorporating mirabegron were less costly than those without mirabegron use. These findings provide an updated cost analysis for the treatment of NDO by investigating mirabegron use alongside more established treatment options.

CONCLUSION

Use of mirabegron for the treatment of pediatric NDO is likely associated with cost savings as compared to treatment pathways without mirabegron. Expansion of payor coverage for mirabegron, as well as clinical studies to study first-line mirabegron use, should be considered.

Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections in children

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunts are commonly used for the long-term management of hydrocephalus in children. Shunt infection remains a common complication, occurring in about 5%-15% of CSF shunts. This narrative review summarises key evidence from recent literature on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, management, outcomes and prevention of CSF shunt infections in children. The majority of shunt infections occur due to contamination at the time of surgery, with coagulase-negative staphylococci and Staphylococcus aureus being the most common infecting organisms. Clinical presentations of shunt infection can be varied and difficult to recognise. CSF cultures are the primary test used for diagnosis. Other CSF and blood parameters may aid in diagnosis but lack sensitivity and specificity. Core aspects of management of shunt infections include systemic antimicrobial therapy and surgical removal of the shunt. However, many specific treatment recommendations are limited by a lack of robust evidence from large studies or controlled trials. Shunt infections may result in long hospital stays, worsening hydrocephalus, neurological sequelae and other complications, as well as death. Therefore, reducing the incidence of infection and optimising management are high priorities. Antibiotic prophylaxis at the time of shunt placement, improved surgical protocols and antibiotic-impregnated shunts are key strategies to prevent shunt infections. Nevertheless, further work is needed to identify additional strategies to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Morbidity and etiology-based success rate of combined endoscopic ventriculostomy and choroid plexus cauterization: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 1918 infants

Approaches to the treatment of infant hydrocephalus vary among centers. Standard shunting carries a significant infection rate, an unpredictable time-to-failure, and the life-long risk of recurrent failures. Combined choroid plexus cauterization (CPC) and endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) have been increasingly employed over the past decade as an alternative approach in an attempt to avoid shunt dependency. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the reported morbidity associated with ETV/CPC and its rate of success reported for specific etiologies of infant hydrocephalus. The protocol of this study was registered with the International prospective register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) with the following registration number: CRD 42022343898. The study utilized four databases of medical literature to perform a systematic search following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Several parameters were extracted from the included studies including authors, publication year, region, study design, sample size, mean age, success rate, complication rate, reported complications, hydrocephalus etiology, median time-to-failure, secondary management after failure, and mean follow-up time. The outcomes of interest, success, and complication rates were pooled using 95% confidence intervals (CI) and a random effects model. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I2 test. Twenty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria from an initial search result of 472 studies. The study included 1938 infants (1918 of which were included in the meta-analysis). The overall success rate of combined ETV/CPC is 0.59 (95% CI (0.53, 0.64), I2 = 82%). Etiology-based success rate is 0.71, 0.70, 0.64, and 0.52 for aqueductal stenosis, myelomeningocele, postinfectious hydrocephalus, and posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus, respectively. The overall complication rate is 0.04 (95% CI (0.02, 0.05), I2 = 14%). Our study presents a comprehensive analysis of the current evidence on the use of ETV/CPC for treating hydrocephalus in infants. The findings demonstrate the potential efficacy of this procedure; however, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations inherent in the included studies, such as selection bias and limited follow-up, which could have impacted the reported outcomes.

Case report: double dermal sinus tracts of the cervical and thoracic spine associated with congenital intracranial pathology (hydrocephalus and an interhemispheric cyst) in a newborn patient

INTRODUCTION

A dermal sinus tract (DST) is an uncommon type of spinal dysraphisms characterized by a tract lined with stratified squamous epithelium that extends from the subcutaneous tissue to the underlying thecal sac or neural tube. These developmental anomalies can present asymptomatically with cutaneous abnormalities or with devastating complications. Usually, it is presented as a unique lesion, and there are only a few reports that show multiple sinuses, and none of them associated with midline brain malformations.

METHODS

We present the case of a 3-day-old girl with an antenatal diagnosis of hydrocephalus who was diagnosed with double dermal sinus tracts of the cervical and thoracic regions at admission. The patient presented signs of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP), which imposed a challenge in the management of the case.

RESULTS

Our patient was successfully treated initially with a lumbar puncture in order to discard a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) infection. With negative CSF cultures, a ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) was placed. Nine days after the VPS surgery and without signs of infection, the DST was excised in a single procedure, without follow-up complications.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first description of a patient with multiple midline neural tube defects (NTDs) associated with congenital intracranial pathology. Although there are no guidelines regarding the best treatment for this complex associated pathology, the patient was treated, without follow-up complications.

Number of surgeries performed during the lifetime of patients with myelomeningocele

OBJECTIVE

Patients with myelomeningocele often require multiple surgeries, but no study has clarified the kind of treatment given to these patients throughout their lives. The authors analyzed the type of surgery that was performed and at what age for Japanese patients with myelomeningoceles.

METHODS

The Japanese health claims data of 556 patients with myelomeningocele for the period from January 2005 to March 2020 provided by the Japan Medical Data Center Co., Ltd., were examined to investigate the number of surgeries performed and the patient age at surgery for each specialty. The patients were divided into two groups (those ≤ 18 years old [group A] and those > 18 years old [group B]), and the way in which the types of surgery and the percentage of surgeries changed between these two groups was examined.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up period was 4.4 years. The mean age at the end of the overall follow-up was 18.6 years (range 0-70.5 years), and 1033 surgeries were performed on 294 patients (0.42 surgeries performed per patient per year) during this period. The number of surgeries for patients in group A was 818 in 192 patients, with 0.62 surgeries per patient per year, and for patients in group B it was 215 in 102 patients, with 0.19 surgeries per patient per year. The number of surgeries and the mean age at the time of surgery were as follows: 313 neurosurgeries, 5.16 years; 280 orthopedic surgeries, 11.36 years; 70 urological surgeries, 14.57 years; and 202 dermatological/plastic surgeries, 16.19 years. In the surgeries related to myelomeningocele, the rates of CSF shunt placement, tethered cord release, muscle and tendon surgery, and other bone and joint surgery decreased significantly in group B, but they continued to undergo these surgeries. In group B, the rates of skin surgery, nephrostomy, ureterostomy, and cystostomy were significantly higher.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant number of surgeries in multiple specialties related to myelomeningocele continue to be performed in adulthood, indicating that these patients require continuous care throughout their lives.