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Franzese O, Torino F, Giannetti E, Cioccoloni G, Aquino A, Faraoni I, Fuggetta MP, De Vecchis L, Giuliani A, Kaina B, Bonmassar E. Abscopal Effect and Drug-Induced Xenogenization: A Strategic Alliance in Cancer Treatment? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910672. [PMID: 34639014 PMCID: PMC8509363 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The current state of cancer treatment is still far from being satisfactory considering the strong impairment of patients' quality of life and the high lethality of malignant diseases. Therefore, it is critical for innovative approaches to be tested in the near future. In view of the crucial role that is played by tumor immunity, the present review provides essential information on the immune-mediated effects potentially generated by the interplay between ionizing radiation and cytotoxic antitumor agents when interacting with target malignant cells. Therefore, the radiation-dependent abscopal effect (i.e., a biological effect of ionizing radiation that occurs outside the irradiated field), the influence of cancer chemotherapy on the antigenic pattern of target neoplastic cells, and the immunogenic cell death (ICD) caused by anticancer agents are the main topics of this presentation. It is widely accepted that tumor immunity plays a fundamental role in generating an abscopal effect and that anticancer drugs can profoundly influence not only the host immune responses, but also the immunogenic pattern of malignant cells. Remarkably, several anticancer drugs impact both the abscopal effect and ICD. In addition, certain classes of anticancer agents are able to amplify already expressed tumor-associated antigens (TAA). More importantly, other drugs, especially triazenes, induce the appearance of new tumor neoantigens (TNA), a phenomenon that we termed drug-induced xenogenization (DIX). The adoption of the abscopal effect is proposed as a potential therapeutic modality when properly applied concomitantly with drug-induced increase in tumor cell immunogenicity and ICD. Although little to no preclinical or clinical studies are presently available on this subject, we discuss this issue in terms of potential mechanisms and therapeutic benefits. Upcoming investigations are aimed at evaluating how chemical anticancer drugs, radiation, and immunotherapies are interacting and cooperate in evoking the abscopal effect, tumor xenogenization and ICD, paving the way for new and possibly successful approaches in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ornella Franzese
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
| | - Francesco Torino
- Department of Systems Medicine, Medical Oncology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (F.T.); (E.G.)
| | - Elisa Giannetti
- Department of Systems Medicine, Medical Oncology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (F.T.); (E.G.)
| | - Giorgia Cioccoloni
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS29JT, UK
| | - Angelo Aquino
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
| | - Isabella Faraoni
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
| | - Maria Pia Fuggetta
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Fosso del Cavaliere, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.P.F.); (A.G.)
| | - Liana De Vecchis
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
| | - Anna Giuliani
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Fosso del Cavaliere, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.P.F.); (A.G.)
| | - Bernd Kaina
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
- Correspondence: (B.K.); (E.B.)
| | - Enzo Bonmassar
- School of Medicine, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy; (O.F.); (G.C.); (A.A.); (I.F.); (L.D.V.)
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Fosso del Cavaliere, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.P.F.); (A.G.)
- Correspondence: (B.K.); (E.B.)
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Dipasquale B, Colombatti M, Tridente G. Morphological Heterogeneity and Phenotype Modifications during Long Term in Vitro Cultures of Six New Human Glioblastoma Cell Lines. TUMORI JOURNAL 2018; 76:172-8. [PMID: 2330609 DOI: 10.1177/030089169007600204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Long term in vitro cultures of six human malignant gliomas were established to obtain permanent lines and to assess, under conditions of prolonged culture, changes in morphology and phenotype of neoplastic cells and the extent of these modifications. We analyzed expression of the following markers by immunocytochemistry: glioma-specific antigens (GE2 and CG12), fibronectin, intermediate filaments (GFAP, vimentin, neurofilaments), class I and II histocompatibility antigens (HLA-ABC and HLA-DR), growth factor and receptor (aTGF and EGF-receptor), proliferation-associated antigen (Ki-67). Strong and stable staining with the two antiglioma monoclonal antibodies (GE2 and CG12) was seen, with coexpression of GFAP and fibronectin in five of six cell lines (after 20 passages) and presence of vimentin and neurofilaments. HLA-DR expression was heterogeneous, with a peculiar intracellular compartmentation in four of six cell lines. Cells showed clear cytoplasmic positivity for aTGF and strong membrane staining for EGF-receptor. In previous studies we showed that these cell lines have increased copies of chromosome 7; therefore we speculate that an autocrine pathway of stimulation may maintain the neoplastic growth. The percentage of Ki-67 positive proliferating cells ranged from 40 to > 60%, depending on cell line and passage. A slight decrease in the positivity of some markers (GFAP, vimentin and HLA-DR in 2/6 cell lines) was observed after prolonged in vitro culture (> 12 months), but morphophenotypic modifications, established within a few passages after explanation, were maintained with time. A clonogenic assay showed values of plating efficiency (PE) higher than corresponding values of other similar cell lines with a tendency to increase in the late passages. PE and Ki-67 positivity were not associated with tumorigenicity into nude mice (except the Hu 197 cell line). These results indicate that, in culture, all six cell lines acquired stable morphology, a well defined antigenic phenotype and high growth rate. Further studies will be performed on these permanent cell lines to clarify differentiation steps of malignant gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dipasquale
- Istituto di Scienze Immunologiche, University of Verona, Italy
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Human glioma cell culture: two FCS-free media could be recommended for clinical use in immunotherapy. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2009; 45:500-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s11626-009-9215-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Anderson RC, Elder JB, Brown MD, Mandigo CE, Parsa AT, Kim PD, Senatus P, Anderson DE, Bruce JN. Changes in the immunologic phenotype of human malignant glioma cells after passaging in vitro. Clin Immunol 2002; 102:84-95. [PMID: 11781071 DOI: 10.1006/clim.2001.5152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Although immunotherapeutic strategies against glioblastomas have been promising both in vitro and in animal models, similar successes have not been realized in human clinical trials. One reason may be that immunotherapeutic strategies are based on prior studies that primarily have used human glioblastoma cell lines passaged in vitro, which may not accurately reflect the in vivo properties of glioblastoma cells. In this report, we used flow cytometry to quantify the expression of immunological cell surface molecules on human glioblastomas directly ex vivo (prior to any in vitro culturing) and after varying passages in vitro. Furthermore, we used ELISA to quantitate cytokine secretion after various passages in vitro. We demonstrate that in vitro culturing of established cell lines led to increases in the cell surface expression of MHC class I and ICAM-1 and secretion of IL-6 and TGF-beta(2). Furthermore, there were significant changes in the expression of MHC class I, MHC class II, B7-2, ICAM-1, and FasL when comparing ex vivo tumor cells to those after a single passage in vitro. After passaging once in vitro, there were also significant changes in the secretion of TGF-beta(2) and IL-10. This report indicates that in vitro culturing leads to significant changes in both cell surface molecules and secreted cytokines, which are known to affect the ability of immune cells to initiate an anti-tumor immune response. These changes in the immunological phenotype of glioblastomas after in vitro culturing may in part explain the limited success of immunotherapeutic strategies against glioblastomas in human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard C Anderson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Engelhard HH, Duncan HA, Kim S, Criswell PS, Van Eldik L. Therapeutic effects of sodium butyrate on glioma cells in vitro and in the rat C6 glioma model. Neurosurgery 2001; 48:616-24; discussion 624-5. [PMID: 11270553 DOI: 10.1097/00006123-200103000-00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Preliminary in vitro studies have indicated that sodium butyrate inhibits the proliferation of cultured glioma cells and induces cellular differentiation, making it potentially useful as a therapeutic agent for patients with glioblastoma multiforme. The purpose of this study was to expand on the preliminary research by investigating the effects of sodium butyrate on multiple cell lines, explanted cells from glioblastoma tumor specimens, and in vivo in the rat C6 glioma brain tumor model. METHODS Four malignant glioma cell lines (A-172, T98G, U118MG, and C6) and two primary cell cultures derived from human glioblastoma tumor specimens were treated with 2 mmol/L sodium butyrate for up to 72 hours. Sodium butyrate-induced effects on cell morphology, proliferation, cell cycle distribution, migration, glial fibrillary acidic protein staining, and S100beta protein content were determined. For in vivo studies, a total of 64 male Wistar-Furth rats underwent operations to implant C6 glioma cells stereotactically or were used as controls. The rats were treated with escalating doses of sodium butyrate by microinfusion with Alzet minipumps (Durect Corp., Cupertino, CA). RESULTS Sodium butyrate treatment in vitro produced changes in morphology and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression indicative of cellular differentiation. In cell lines and explanted cells, sodium butyrate consistently inhibited glioblastoma cell proliferation (to 51 +/- 6% that of controls) and migration (to 46 +/- 17%). Intratumoral infusion of 40 mmol/L sodium butyrate prolonged the survival of Wistar-Furth rats with intracerebral C6 tumors (P = 0.013) without detectable toxicity. CONCLUSION These data support further consideration of direct interstitial infusion of sodium butyrate in a Phase I clinical study for patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Engelhard
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Illinois at Chicago, 60612, USA.
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Engelhard HH, Homer RJ, Duncan HA, Rozental J. Inhibitory effects of phenylbutyrate on the proliferation, morphology, migration and invasiveness of malignant glioma cells. J Neurooncol 1998; 37:97-108. [PMID: 9524087 DOI: 10.1023/a:1005865125588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to characterize the effects of sodium 4-phenylbutyrate (phenylbutyrate) on the proliferation, morphology, migration and invasiveness of malignant glioma cells in vitro. Phenylbutyrate is a novel differentiating and cytotoxic compound used clinically with low toxicity in the treatment of beta-thalassemia, sickle cell anemia and urea cycle disorders. Preliminary clinical trials testing phenylbutyrate as an anti-cancer agent have included patients with malignant glioma. However, little information is available regarding the effects of phenylbutyrate on glioma cells, particularly with respect to the expression of genes important in the pathogenesis of glial malignancy. In experiments reported here, glioma cell lines and explant cells from a tumor patient were exposed to 2, 4 and 8 mM phenylbutyrate and compared to untreated control cells. The effect on cellular proliferation was assessed using cell counts and DNA flow cytometry. Changes in morphology were evaluated using vimentin staining. Scratch and Matrigel assays were performed to assess changes in cellular migration and invasiveness. Finally, Northern blot analysis was used to study c-myc and urokinase expression. Phenylbutyrate was found to have dose-dependent inhibitory effects on glioma cell proliferation, morphology, migration, invasiveness and c-myc and urokinase expression. Mean growth-inhibitory (IC50) phenylbutyrate concentrations ranged from 0.5 mM for T98G cells to 5.0 mM for explant cells. Phenylbutyrate treatment reduced % S phase cells, increased % G0/G1 cells, and produced morphologic changes consistent with induction of differentiation. 24 hours of treatment with 4 mM phenylbutyrate resulted in a 50% reduction in migration and invasiveness. Northern blots showed a decrease in urokinase and c-myc expression at non-cytotoxic doses. We conclude that phenylbutyrate is a promising candidate compound for treating patients with malignant glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Engelhard
- Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL, USA
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Kadota RP. Perspectives on investigational chemotherapy and biologic therapy for childhood brain tumors. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1996; 18:13-22. [PMID: 8556364 DOI: 10.1097/00043426-199602000-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R P Kadota
- Division of Hematology/Oncology Children's Hospital and Health Center, San Diego, California, USA
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Stuschke M, Budach V, Sack H. Radioresponsiveness of human glioma, sarcoma, and breast cancer spheroids depends on tumor differentiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993; 27:627-36. [PMID: 8226158 DOI: 10.1016/0360-3016(93)90389-d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Differences in the intrinsic radiosensitivity within and between different tumor classes have been noticed for human tumor cell lines using the clonogenic assay. By far, most of the cell lines studied up to now were derived from poorly differentiated tumors. In this study, the influence of tumor differentiation on the radiation doses necessary to control 50% of small oxic spheroids (SCD50) was determined. Evidence of a distinct dependence of radioresponsiveness on tumor progression provides a background for an investigation of the underlying mechanisms. METHODS AND MATERIALS Spheroids were aggregated from 1000-1500 cells in agarose coated 24 multi-well plates. Their diameters ranged from 156 to 405 microns, depending on the cell line. Spheroids were irradiated with graded 60Co single doses using spheroid control as end point and a minimum follow-up period of 3 months. RESULTS Cell lines from three low grade gliomas and 10 malignant gliomas were studied in the spheroid control assay. The group mean SCD50 values were 6.1 +/- 1.6 Gy and 13.1 +/- 3.3 Gy, respectively. Four cell lines from grade 2 soft tissue sarcomas had a mean SCD50 value of 6.2 +/- 0.5 Gy and one undifferentiated sarcoma line of 11.0 Gy. Three well-differentiated breast cancer lines expressed the cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin, had an epithelioid morphology in monolayer culture, were estrogen receptor positive or contact inhibited in multicellular spheroids. Two undifferentiated breast cancer lines had a fibroblastoid morphology and were marker negative. The mean SCD50 value of the former was 10.5 +/- 1.0 Gy while that of the undifferentiated lines was 14.8 +/- 2.8 Gy. Analysis of variance revealed a significant effect of the tumor type as well as the grade of dedifferentiation on the SCD50 after irradiation with one fraction or 2Gy/fraction. The surviving fractions at 2 Gy (SF2), obtained from the spheroid control rates after different fractionation schedules by approximation of the linear quadratic model assuming Poisson statistics were significantly dependent on tumor type (p = 0.001, ANOVA F-test) but not on tumor differentiation (p = 0.27). The alpha/beta ratios did not depend on tumor type (p = 0.08, ANOVA F-Test) but significantly increased with the grade of tumor cell dedifferentiation (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION The spheroid model is suitable for measuring the radioresponsiveness of differentiated cell lines with very low colony forming efficiencies. Tumor cell differentiation is an important factor for the radioresponsiveness and recovery capacity of human tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Stuschke
- Department of Radiotherapy, University of Essen, Germany
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Abstract
Nuclear proteins obtained from human brain tumor cell lines by differential salt extraction were subjected to high-resolution two-dimensional electrophoresis. Several hundred spots were detectable in the low salt (0.4 M NaCl) extract using silver staining. These patterns exhibited remarkable differences between the different cell lines we analyzed. A less complex pattern occurred when nuclei were subsequently treated with high salt (2.5 M NaCl/5 M urea). We compared the electropherograms from various human glioblastoma cell lines and found them very similar and even a high degree of similarity occurs between glioblastomas and other human tumor cell lines. Beside these more general observations we detected several proteins at least enriched in human glioblastomas which were totally absent in low grade astrocytomas and nonglial tumors. They could be separated from the bulk of nonspecific proteins by simple modifications of the isoelectric focusing conditions. From these results we conclude that nuclear proteins obtained by sequential salt extraction and separated by two-dimensional techniques may provide tumor specific proteins suitable for antibody production.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Müller
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Saar, Homburg/Saar, Germany
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Rogers LR, Purvis JB, Lederman RJ, Rosenbloom SA, Tomsak RL, Estes ML, Magdinec M, Medendorp SV, Boyett JM. Alternating sequential intracarotid BCNU and cisplatin in recurrent malignant glioma. Cancer 1991; 68:15-21. [PMID: 2049736 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0142(19910701)68:1<15::aid-cncr2820680104>3.0.co;2-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The authors entered 43 patients with recurrent malignant glioma in a trial of alternating sequential intracarotid BCNU and cisplatin. Protocol design was alternating courses of BCNU (2 doses, 300 to 400 mg each) and cisplatin (2 doses, 150 to 200 mg each) each at 4-week to 6-week intervals. Eight of 40 patients (20%) evaluable after the first course of BCNU showed partial or minor response. Only 18 patients were evaluable after the first course of cisplatin, and 5 were evaluable after the second course of BCNU. Median survival was 9 months (range, 2 weeks to 6 years). Cerebral or ocular toxicity unique to this method of chemotherapy administration and failure to show clinical improvement were the most common reasons for removal from study. Because of the high attrition rate, the authors were unable to determine a meaningful response to alternating sequential BCNU and cisplatin or to test the clinical degree of cross-resistance to these agents in human malignant glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Rogers
- Department of Neurology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio 44106
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Packer RJ, Kramer ED, Ryan JA. Biologic and Immune Modulating Agents in the Treatment of Childhood Brain Tumors. Neurol Clin 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0733-8619(18)30293-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vertosick FT. Glioma growth and the protein kinase-C system. J Neurosurg 1991; 74:685-8. [PMID: 2002388 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1991.74.4.0685a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Couldwell WT, Antel JP, Apuzzo ML, Yong VW. Inhibition of growth of established human glioma cell lines by modulators of the protein kinase-C system. J Neurosurg 1990; 73:594-600. [PMID: 2398390 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1990.73.4.0594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The protein kinase-C (PKC) second messenger system contributes to regulation of cell growth and differentiation. This study was undertaken to examine the effects of modulators of the PKC enzyme system on the state of differentiation and proliferation rates of human gliomas in vitro. The administration of the PKC-activating phorbol esters 4-beta-phorbol-12,13-dibutyrate (PDB) and phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) resulted in a dose-related inhibition of growth of human glioma cell lines in vitro as measured by 3H-thymidine uptake. The synthetic nonphorbol PKC activator (SC-9) produced an even more pronounced decrease of 3H-thymidine uptake. Diacylglycerol, an endogenous activator of the system, applied externally, transiently decreased the proliferation, in concordance with its short-lived existence in vivo. Conversely, the administration of 4-alpha-phorbol-12,13-didecanoate (alpha-PDD), a phorbol ester that binds but does not activate the enzyme, had no effect on the proliferation rate. At the dosages that maximally decreased proliferation, there was no evidence of direct glioma cell lysis induced by these agents as measured by a chromium-release assay. Immunocytochemical analysis and cytofluorometric measurement of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) staining in the treated cultures revealed an increase in GFAP staining over control cultures. In contrast to the response of glioma cells, nonmalignant human adult astrocytes treated with the PKC activators responded by increasing their proliferation rate. The authors postulate that the diametrically opposed effects of PKC activators on nonmalignant astrocytes versus glioma growth may be due to a high intrinsic PKC activity in glioma cells, with resultant down-regulation of enzyme activity following the administration of the pharmacological activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- W T Couldwell
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Hospital, Quebec, Canada
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