Spinal epidural vascular malformation presenting in association with a spontaneously resolved acute epidural hematoma. Case report

Treatment of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma in children: analysis of 25 cases

INTRODUCTION

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a rare neurosurgical emergency, presenting as sudden onset of back pain and weakness of lower extremities. Many patients have no definite cause. Some cases of SSEH caused by vascular malformation have been reported. The treatment strategy remains controversial. This study aimed to analyze the causes of SSEH and proposed a treatment strategy according to clinical outcomes of patients at a single institution.

METHODS

A total of 25 cases of SSEH under 18 years of age treated between March 2004 and July 2021 were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

The mean age of the first SSEH onset was 7.1 years. The most common location was cervicothorax. Nine patients suffered from multiple episodes. Twenty-three patients underwent spinal digital subtraction angiography (DSA), of which seven (30.4%) patients had positive findings: three cases had epidural artery venous fistula (AVF), two cases had epidural artery venous malformation (AVM), and two cases had abnormal concentration of contrast agent. Seventeen patients received surgery. Eleven patients (44%) were diagnosed as vascular malformation by either DSA or pathology. The follow-up rate was 80%, with 20 patients (80%) achieving satisfactory clinical outcome. Risk factors for poor clinical outcome included multiple episodes (p = 0.028) and higher Aminoff-Logue score (p = 0.005).

CONCLUSION

Spinal epidural vascular malformation is a significant cause of SSEH. Spinal DSA is necessary. Surgery should be recommended for patients with multiple episodes, positive findings on DSA, or severe neurological deficits. Conservation therapy can be considered for other patients, but long-time follow-up is necessary.

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma in a patient on acenocoumarol for valvular atrial fibrillation: A rare case report

INTRODUCTION

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a rare finding, but one with serious clinical implications. Oral anticoagulant drugs are known to be associated with the SSEH onset, particularly when combined with drugs increasing the bleeding risk.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present the case of a 62-year-old female on acencoumarol for her atrial fibrillation complicating severe mitral stenosis with a history of Ketoprofen use for the onset of her first symptoms. She presented to our emergency room with paraplegia and sphincter disturbance. Spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a posterior SSEH extended from T10 to T12 requiring an urgent decompression of the spinal cord by laminectomy performed within 48 hours from the symptom's onset. After 3 months of rehabilitation, the patient improves partially her muscular strength with mostly unchanged sensitive and sphincteric levels.

CLINICAL DISCUSSION

Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) use appears to be a high suspicion index for SSEH diagnosis resulting in earlier surgery and improving neurological outcome. Also, it is important to pay attention to the concomitant use of VKA and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs which increase the risk of bleeding and may worsen the neurological outcome.

CONCLUSION

SSEH is a rare and serious finding which should be especially searched when a history of oral anticoagulation is reported in presence of neurological symptoms. A prompt and suitable management may improve the patient outcomes.

Unusual pediatric epidural arteriovenous fistula with venous ectasia presented with spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma: Case report

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is rare in children. Vascular malformation including arteriovenous fistulas and venous malformation is a rare cause of SSEH.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 5-year-old girl presented with 2 episodes of SSEH at the upper thoracic spine and non-hemorrhagic episodes with spontaneous neurological recovery. Diagnostic study with MRI and spinal angiography demonstrated an unusual epidural arteriovenous fistula (AVF) with venous ectasia similar to venous malformation. She underwent embolization of the AVF with NBCA with mild transient neurological deterioration. Follow up angiography showed persistent occlusion of the embolized fistula and inconsistent visualization of another AVF to the patent venous ectasia.

CONCLUSIONS

This type of epidural AVF seems to be more common in children and tends to cause multiple neurologic episodes due to SSEH, venous expansion or thrombosis. Endovascular embolization with NBCA should be the first choice of treatment for this disease, unless emergent hematoma evacuation is necessary. Embolization should target at only the fistula site without significant penetration into the venous ectasia. Follow up is necessary for potential reappearance of AVF, even if AVF is occluded at the time of treatment. Time resolved MRI is useful to detect AVFs, thus for diagnosis and follow up of this disease.

Acute Spontaneous Cervical Spinal Epidural Haematoma a Very Rare Presentation Mimicking of Carotid Dissection during Sleep

Acute spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma without any identified etiology is a rare phenomenon and an uncommon cause of acute spinal cord compression. We report a case of acute spontaneous cervical spinal epidural hematoma, with sudden onset of acute neck pain and left-side body weakness during sleep which resembling of cervicle carotid dissection. The pain commenced suddenly, early in the morning while the patient was asleep. He had no previous history of any relevant medical disorder. Cervical Spine MRI revealed a cervical epidural haematoma at C3/C4, mainly on the left side, with spinal cord compression. Therefore, an emergent C3/C6 hemilaminectomy and evacuation of hematoma were carried out within 24 h of presentation. The patient's neck pain resolved after surgery and he was able to walk, though he required bladder catheterization on discharge after 1 week. He has nearly intact motor neurological examination in the second month of the operation.

Rapid Recovery of Spontaneous Spinal Epidural Hematoma without Surgical Treatment: Case Report and Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a relatively uncommon yet potentially disabling neurologic emergency. The classical presentation includes a severe acute attack, sometimes radiating pain at the back, interscapular, or neck areas, followed by neurologic deficits. The main treatment is surgical, and self-healing cases are rare.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 17-year-old female was admitted to the neurosurgery department with neck pain, myasthenia of the limbs, and difficulty moving. Mild neck pain had developed 1 week prior with no obvious predisposing causes. The patient had suddenly suffered severe neck pain during normal walking and developed rapid paralysis of her limbs. There was no recent history of trauma, infection, or drug administration. Magnetic resonance imaging performed 1 hour after the onset of limb paralysis demonstrated a large spinal epidural hematoma that extended from C4 to C6. However, 9 hours after the initial onset of severe neck pain, her symptoms completely ceased. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated that the SSEH had nearly dissipated.

CONCLUSIONS

Most cases of SSEH with spontaneous resolution are located on the upper thoracic and cervical spine. Surgery is the standard of care for these patients but can occasionally be deferred if the patient demonstrates significant rapid improvement.

Spontaneous cervical epidural hematomas in mild cervical spondylotic myelopathy patients: An analysis of 8 cases

Spontaneous cervical epidural hematoms (SCEH) complicated with mild cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) is a rare but emerging condition. Early diagnosis and treatment are important for good outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the clinical characteristics of this condition and to discuss the optimal treatment. The clinical data from 8 patients with SCEH plus CSM who were divided into two groups by treatment methods were retrospectively analyzed. The neurological function of the patients was assessed by Japanese Orthopedic Association (JOA) score before and after the surgical operations. Other factors were reviewed with medical records. Among them, 4 out of the 8 patients underwent emergency surgery, and the rest 3 patients experienced an initial conservative treatment and ultimately received a laminectomy. We found that the Frankel Scale scores in most of the surgical patients were increased after surgery (6/7, 85.7%). However, the JOA scores at the 6th month after onset were even lower than those before onset in 3 of the operative cases, and those in the patients who were given conservative treatment showed no significant change. It was concluded that some patients with SCEH and CSM treated with a timely operation may obtain relief from their previous CSM symptoms. However, the final neurological deficits of these patients were closely related to the progressive interval which refers to the hours between the initial onset and the occurrence of new neurological deficits or mild CSM deterioration, no matter whether they accept the operation. We found the crucial progressive interval may be in 9 h. Early MRI and prompt neurosurgical intervention are also important to improve the neurological deficits.

Clinical Features, Management, and Prognostic Factors of Spontaneous Epidural Spinal Hematoma: Analysis of 24 Cases

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a rare neurosurgical emergency. It presents as acute spinal cord compression and usually requires surgical decompression. The patients who will benefit most from decompression surgery are unknown, and the factors associated with prognosis remain controversial. The purpose of our study was to identify the clinical features, treatments, and main factors related to the prognosis of SSEH.

METHODS

We reviewed the records of 24 patients treated for SSEH from September 2010 to January 2016 at West China Hospital. Clinical features, radiologic images, treatment methods, and clinical outcomes were reviewed retrospectively. To ascertain which factors were related to outcomes, statistical analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Among 24 patients, 19 presented with severe initial neurologic deficits (American Spinal Injury Association grade A-C) underwent decompressive surgery, and the remaining patients (initial American Spinal Injury Association grade D or E) received conservative treatment. Among the 19 patients in the operation group, seven (36.8%) had good outcomes, whereas 12 (63.2%) had poor outcomes. All patients in the conservative group had good outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

SSEH is a rare but serious illness. It is more likely that SSEH arises from a ruptured internal vertebral venous plexus. The initial neurologic status is the determining factor influencing the treatment method and clinical outcome. The number of involved segments cannot be used to decide the treatment method or predict prognosis. Patients with shorter operative intervals appear to have better neurologic recovery.

The Coexistence of Extradural Arteriovenous Fistula and Soft Tissue Arteriovenous Malformation Within the Same Metamere

BACKGROUND

Spinal arteriovenous shunts are a common spinal vascular disorder. However, they can have a misleading clinical presentation and poor prognosis. They are classified into 4 types according to shunt points and drainage route, among which extradural arteriovenous fistula (eAVF) is the most rare, comprising only 1% of all spinal arteriovenous shunts. We report an extremely rare case of coexistent eAVF at the craniocervical junction and soft tissue arteriovenous malformation within the same metamere.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 30-year-old man presented with neck pain. T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging revealed a flow void at the right craniocervical junction compressing the spinal cord. Angiography revealed eAVF at the craniocervical junction. The patient was treated via transvenous embolization. After the procedure, shunt flow and symptoms markedly decreased. During the operation, an extracranial arteriovenous malformation under the occipital skin was detected immediately after occluding the shunt point.

CONCLUSIONS

This case indicates that transvenous embolization can be an effective treatment for eAVF and supports some hypotheses of arteriovenous malformation development. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of examining a lesion with multiple modalities, including angiography, three-dimensional angiography, and cone-beam computed tomography, to understand the anatomy of the lesion.

Spontaneous Spinal Epidural Hematoma: A Study of 55 Cases Focused on the Etiology and Treatment Strategy

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a rare neurologic emergency of the spinal cord. Its cause and treatment strategy remain controversial. This study aimed to evaluate a significant cause of SSEH and to discuss the treatment strategy according to the clinical outcomes of patients in 2 institutions.

METHODS

Fifty-five cases of SSEH treated at our institutions between February 2002 and February 2016 were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

The mean age of the first SSEH onset was 31.8 years. The follow-up rate was 72.7%, with 28 patients (70%) showing satisfactory clinical outcomes. Forty patients received preoperative spinal digital subtraction angiography. Spinal epidural (extradural) arteriovenous fistula was detected in 6 patients (15%), 5 of whom showed 1 type of special slow-flow shunt. Nineteen patients (34.5%) suffered from multiple episodes until they underwent invasive treatments or last follow-up. Rebleeding was confirmed in 8 patients. None of the patients had a subsequent episode or rebleeding after invasive treatment. The risk factors for poor clinical outcome included advanced age at initial onset (P = 0.020), a short progression interval (P = 0.030), no symptom relief after admission (P = 0.011), hypesthesia (P = 0.017), complete spinal cord injury (P = 0.001), and hematoma below the T4 level (P = 0.014).

CONCLUSIONS

Spinal epidural (extradural) arteriovenous fistula is a significant cause of SSEH. Standard spinal digital subtraction angiography is necessary for patients with SSEH. Conservative treatment could not prevent occurrence of multiple episodes or rebleeding in patients. Microsurgery should be recommended as the preferred treatment strategy for SSEH. Endovascular embolization is also recommended if applicable.

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma management with minimally invasive surgery through tubular retractors: A case report and review of the literature

To report a minimally invasive paraspinal approach in the treatment of a case of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH). We additionally aim to review the relevant literature to enhance our knowledge of this disease. SSEH is an uncommon but potentially catastrophic disease. Currently, most appropriate management is emergence decompression laminectomy and hematoma evacuation. An 81-year-old woman was admitted to the neurology department with a chief complaint of bilateral numbness and weakness of the lower limbs and difficulty walking for 4 days with progressive weakness developed over the following 3 days accompanied with pain in the lower limbs and lower back. No history of trauma was reported. Magnetic resonance imaging of the thoracolumbar spine demonstrated an epidural hematoma extending from T-12 to L-5 with thecal sac and cauda equina displacement anterior. The patient was treated in our department with a minimally invasive approach. This operation method had been approved by Chinese Independent Ethics Committee. Three months following the operation, the patient had regained the ability to walk with the aid of a cane and myodynamia tests revealed normal results for the left lower limb and a 4/5 grade for the right limb. Importantly, no complications were exhibited from the surgical operation. The minimally invasive paraspinal approach through tubular retractors is demonstrated here as an effective alternative method for the treatment of SSEH.

Spontaneous thoracic epidural hematoma: a case report and literature review

Spinal epidural hematoma is a rare neurosurgical emergency in respect of motor and sensory loss. Identifiable reasons for spontaneous hemorrhage are vascular malformations and hemophilias. We presented a case of spontaneous epidural hematoma in an 18-year-old female patient who had motor and sensory deficits that had been present for 1 day. On MRI, there was spinal epidural hematoma posterior to the T2-T3 spinal cord. The hematoma was evacuated with T2 hemilaminectomy and T3 laminectomy. Patient recovered immediately after the surgery. Literature review depicted 112 pediatric cases (including the presented one) of spinal epidural hematoma. The female/male ratio is 1.1:2. Average age at presentation is 7.09 years. Clinical presentations include loss of strength, sensory disturbance, bowel and bladder disturbances, neck pain, back pain, leg pain, abdominal pain, meningismus, respiratory difficulty, irritability, gait instability, and torticollis. Most common spinal level was cervicothoracic spine. Time interval from symptom onset to clinical diagnosis varied from immediate to 18 months. Spinal epidural hematoma happened spontaneously in 71.8 % of the cases, and hemophilia was the leading disorder (58 %) in the cases with a definable disorder. Partial or complete recovery is possible after surgical interventions and factor supplementations.

Small and medium size intracranial aneurysms - a 5 years retrospective analysis trial and multimodal treatment

Clinical context. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) due to rupture of an aneurysm is one of the most common neurosurgical emergencies who account for onethird of stroke .In the SAH cases , aneurysms accounted for 70%. Aneurysms had a bleeding rate of 12 per 100,000 population per year, and in particular between 50 to 60 years of age with a high morbidity and mortality, especially in the first episode of bleeding at about 43% of cases (1, 4, 14). Surgery is indicated to prevent rebleeding. 2.5% of patients in the general population may have unbroken aneurysms with a prevalence of 0.65%, with a preponderance of aneurysms in a 2: 1 in women. ACI aneurysms are more common in women and Acom aneurysms are more common in men and in 15-30% of patients with presence of multiple aneurysms. Surgical timing, the assessment in each individual case for rebleeding usage of endovascular techniques (3, 12), neurological status, the presence or absence of intraparenchymal hematoma or intraventricular hemorrhage with or without vasospasm, have an influence on the result. Over a period of 5 years from January 2010 to November 2014, 317 cases of patients with intracranial aneurysms in four clinics of neurosurgery in Bagdasar -Arseni hospital have been studied. The follow up period range between 6 month and 4 years and 3 month.

Whole spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma

A 26-year-old male who had no underlying disease, including coagulopathy, underwent thoracotomy and bleeding control due to hemothorax. On the fifth postoperative day, paralysis of both lower limbs occurred. Urgent spine magnetic resonance imaging showed a massive anterior spinal epidural hematoma from C2 to L1 level with different signal intensities, which was suspected to be staged hemorrhage. Hematoma evacuation with decompressive laminectomy was performed. The patient's neurologic deterioration was recovered immediately, and he was discharged without neurological deficits. A drug history of naftazone, which could induce a drug-induced platelet dysfunction, was revealed retrospectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report of whole spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma in a young patient, with a history of hemorrhoid medication.

Spinal epidural hematoma related to intracranial hypotension

A 45-year-old female patient visited the hospital complaining of severe sudden headache and posterior neck pain. The patient did not have any traumatic history or abnormal neurologic finding. The patient had sudden quadriplegia and sensory loss. Cervical spine MRI scan was taken, and the compatible findings to acute epidural hematoma were shown. The emergency operation was performed. After the operation, the patient recovered all motor and senses. As there was CSF leakage in the postoperative wound, this was confirmed by cervical spinal computed tomography (CT). Then lumbar drainage was thus performed. The opening pressure upon lumbar puncture was not measured as it was very low. As a result of continous CSF leakage, dural repair was performed. After the operation, the patient had been discharged without neurologic deficits. In this case, it is sensible to suspect intracranial hypotension as a possible cause of spinal EDH.

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma secondary to extradural arteriovenous malformation in a child: a case-based update

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to report a rare pediatric case of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) mimicking Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), secondary to an epidural arteriovenous malformation (AVM). Furthermore, a case-based update and insight into the entity is attempted.

METHODS

An 8-year-old male presented with progressing severe lower limb weakness and no traumatic history. Presentation was mimicking GBS with ascending symptoms. Magnetic resonance (MR) scan revealed a dorsal epidural mass, extending from C6-C7 to T2, compressing the spinal cord. Emergency laminoplasties and surgical evacuation of the hematoma were performed. An up-to-date review of reported SSEH cases in children was conducted, with emphasis on underlying vascular malformations (epidural AVMs in particular). Pathogenesis, predisposing factors, imaging, diagnosis, treatment and outcome are discussed.

RESULTS

The hematoma was successfully evacuated. A vascular membrane on the dura was peeled off and sent for histopathology. There was no evidence of intradural vascular penetration. The patient improved postoperatively and was able to walk with support 7 months later. Histology revealed closely packed thin-walled angiomatous structures with wide lumens (filled with red blood cells) with walls composed of collagen and smooth muscle fibers, findings consistent with AVM.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-traumatic SSEH is rare in the pediatric population. Although vascular malformations are suspected, they are extremely rarely identified histopathologically. This case represents one of the very few reports of pediatric SSEH caused by a histologically proven, purely epidural AVM. High index of clinical suspicion and low threshold for MR can lead to timely diagnosis and prompt treatment with good functional outcome.

[Spontaneous resolution of a paraparesis due to a dorsolumbar epidural haematoma associated with subarachnoid anaesthesia and postoperative analgesia using an epidural catheter]

Spinal epidural haematoma after neuroaxial anaesthesia is a rare but serious complication. Most cases are attributed to anticoagulant therapy or bleeding tendency. It presents as an acute spinal cord compression and usually requires emergency surgical decompression. The interval between the onset of clinical signs and surgical evacuation is very important, influencing the neurological prognosis. We report a case of a spinal epidural haematoma after epidural analgesia in a patient who was treated with low molecular weight heparin for thrombo-prophylaxis in the perioperative period. In some cases, such as the one reported here, good neurological recovery can be achieved with conservative management.

Chronic Spinal Epidural Hematoma Related to Kummell's Disease

Chronic spinal epidural hematoma related to Kummell's disease is extremely rare. An 82-year-old woman who had been managed conservatively for seven weeks with the diagnosis of a multi-level osteoporotic compression fracture was transferred to our institute. Lumbar spine magnetic resonance images revealed vertebral body collapse with the formation of a cavitary lesion at L1, and a chronic spinal epidural hematoma extending from L1 to L3. Because of intractable back pain, a percutaneous vertebroplasty was performed. The pain improved dramatically and follow-up magnetic resonance imaging obtained three days after the procedure showed a nearly complete resolution of the hematoma. Here, we present the rare case of a chronic spinal epidural hematoma associated with Kummell's disease and discuss the possible mechanism.

Spontaneous cervical epidural hematoma during pregnancy: case report and literature review

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) during pregnancy is rare and may result in permanent damage if not promptly treated. There were few studies discussing the etiology, presentation and treatment of SSEH during pregnancy. The authors describe a case of spontaneous cervical epidural hematoma during pregnancy, which was diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and managed with surgical evacuation. A retrospective review of a case of spontaneous epidural hematoma of spine during pregnancy was performed. The clinical features, diagnoses, treatments and outcomes of all cases were analyzed. Precise diagnosis without delay and rapid surgical treatment are essential for the management of SSEH during pregnancy.

Vertebral artery dissection as an extremely rare cause of spinal epidural hematoma: case report and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

To present a patient with a cervico-thoracic ventrally located epidural hematoma caused by dissection and subsequent bleeding of the cervical portion of the vertebral artery.

SUMMARY AND BACKGROUND DATA

Non traumatic epidural hematoma is a rare entity. The etiology usually is not clarified: a venous origin is usually suspected although an arterial source is also possible.

CLINICAL REPORT

A 32-year-old woman presented with a ventrally located cervico-thoracic epidural hematoma caused by non traumatic dissection and dissecting aneurysm rupture of the cervical portion of the vertebral artery. The dissection was demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging and digital subtraction angiography. The patient had no neurological symptoms and was treated by conservative methods. Follow up imaging showed healing of the vertebral artery and resorption of the epidural hematoma.

CONCLUSION

Dissection of the cervical portion of the vertebral artery with subsequent perivascular bleeding is not well recognized as a possible cause of a spinal epidural hematoma. Even though this entity and the underlying cause may be rare, we suggest a vigilant search for vertebral artery injury in cases of ventrally located cervical and upper thoracic epidural hematoma.

Spinal epidural hematoma after stretch exercise: a case report

Spinal epidural hematoma (SEH) is a rare but serious condition. Common causes of SEH include spinal fracture, spinal trauma, and invasive spinal procedures such as lumbar puncture, epidural anesthesia, or myelography. A few previous reports have suggested that SEH could be caused by minor triggers such as spinal manipulation therapy or spontaneously in rare cases. A 60-year-old man, immediately after stretch exercise, developed severe back cervicodynia and rapidly progressive weakness of left arm from SEH. He was treated by decompression laminectomy and evacuation of the hematoma. However, the upper extremity weakness did not completely resolve. The standard treatment remains timely surgical decompression and evacuation of the hematoma. Thus, early diagnosis and treatment can confer a significant prognostic advantage to patients with SEH. Based on the finding that SEH was caused by a mild mechanical trigger and neurologic deficits remained in this patient, this report highlights its diagnostic difficulty as well as the importance of rapid treatment. Emergency physicians should consider SEH among the differential diagnosis in patients with sudden-onset back pain with symptoms and signs of spinal cord compression.

Spinal extradural arteriovenous malformations with parenchymal drainage: venous drainage variability and implications in clinical manifestations

OBJECT

Although nontraumatic spinal arteriovenous malformations and fistulas (AVMs and AVFs) restricted to the epidural space are rare, they can lead to significant neurological morbidity. Careful diagnostic imaging is essential to their detection and the delineation of the pathological anatomy. Aggressive endovascular and open operative treatment can provide arrest and reversal of neurological deficits.

METHODS

The authors report on 6 cases of extradural AVMs/AVFs causing progressive myelopathy. Clinical findings, diagnostic evaluation, treatment, and outcome are discussed. Special consideration is given to the anatomy of the lesions and the operative techniques used to treat them. A review of the literature concerning extradural vascular malformations is also presented.

RESULTS

All 6 cases of extradural AVMs had an extradural fistulous location with intradural medullary venous drainage. These cases illustrate progressive myelopathy through cord venous congestion (hypertension) that can be caused by an extradural nidus or fistula. In 4 cases, a large epidural lake was identified on angiography. At surgery, the epidural lake was obliterated and medullary drainage interrupted. All patients had stabilization of their neurological deficits and successful obliteration of the AVM/AVF was obtained.

CONCLUSIONS

Extradural AVMs and AVFs are a poorly described entity with published clinical experience limited to sporadic case reports and small series. Although these lesions have a purely extradural location of arteriovenous shunting and early venous drainage, they can be responsible for acute and progressive neurological symptoms similar to those caused by their dural-based intradural counterparts. With careful imaging recognition of the pathological anatomy, surgical and endovascular techniques can be used for the treatment of extradural AVMs affording effective and durable obliteration with stabilization or reversal of neurological symptoms. Venous drainage directly correlates the pathologic mechanisms of presentation. Specific attention must be paid intraoperatively to the epidural lake common to both variants so that recurrence is avoided.

Metastatic carcinoma related long segment thoracic spinal epidural hematoma: a case report

STUDY DESIGN

Case report.

OBJECTIVE

To report a long segment epidural hematoma with thoracic cord compression caused by a metastatic carcinoma.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

To our knowledge, there have been no previous reports of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma caused by metastatic carcinoma.

METHODS

A 60-year-old woman with back pain and progressive leg weakness suddenly developed complete paraplegia and anesthesia below T8. A thoracic spine MRI showed an epidural hematoma and metastatic tumor. We describe the clinical course, radiographic imaging, operative findings, and treatment results.

RESULTS

Despite immediate surgery, the patient failed to have any significant improvement in her neurologic symptoms. A previously unsuspected primary lung tumor was diagnosed. She died 6 months after spine surgery.

CONCLUSION

Spinal epidural hematoma can occur in association with metastatic tumors in that area.

Clinical management for spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma: diagnosis and treatment

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (SSEH) is a very rare condition, so there were few studies assessing the management criteria of SSEH.

PURPOSE

To assess the differential diagnosis and clinical results of treatment for SSEH.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective chart and radiograph review of the patients with SSEH.

PATIENT SAMPLE

Seven consecutive patients with SSEH who were treated in our institute.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Differential diagnosis, severity of the paresis, and treatment selection were assessed preoperatively and postoperatively.

METHODS

We assessed the relationship between the following parameters and clinical results: (1) the initial symptoms, (2) imaging diagnosis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), (3) treatment selection (conservative or surgical treatment), (4) the interval of surgery, and (5) the severity of paresis using ASIA impairment scale (AIS) grading.

RESULTS

In all patients, the symptoms at onset were severe neck and back pain. MRI showed isointensity to the spinal cord in the T1-weighted view and iso- or high intensity in the T2-weighted view. A solid pattern in MRI was shown in 4 patients, and a mosaic pattern was shown in 3 patients. Decompression was performed in five cases, and spontaneous recovery appeared in two cases. The mean interval time for operation was 29.8 hours. The severity of paresis was grade B in 3 cases and grade C in 4 cases at onset. These cases recovered to become grade E in 3 cases and grade D in 4 cases. Neurological deficits were present in two patients with conservative therapy and in two patients with a long interval for operation.

CONCLUSIONS

Precise diagnosis without delay and rapid surgical treatment are essential for the management of SSEH.

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma: analysis of 23 cases

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma is a rare but disabling disease. To explore its characters and find out what factors influence the prognosis, we gave a retrospective analysis of 23 patients in our department in the past 8 years.

METHODS

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma was diagnosed by taking MRIs of patients without surgical management or by histopathological examination. We registered patient's case history, laboratory examination, radiological image, treatment, pathological result, and prognosis after 3 months and gave them nonparameter analysis.

RESULTS

Primary neurological status and progressive intervals have correlation with prognosis (P< .01), and the latter less than 12 hours predict worse prognosis (P= .032). Spinal edema in MRI predicts pessimistic prognosis (P= .013). Long hematoma predicts worse prognosis (P= .02). Preoperative interval, emphasized by other authors, has no statistical correlation with prognosis in this study (P= .832). Finally, patients with a single hematoma or hematoma mingled with other spinal disturbance have the same prognosis (P= .065).

CONCLUSIONS

The primary neurological status, progressive interval, spinal edema, and size of hematoma will influence the prognosis of the patient with SSEH. The major treatment is surgical intervention, and it should be operated as soon as possible to avoid the aggravation of neurological status. Conservative treatment is not considered unless patient's neurological deficiency has relieved in the early period.

Acute presentation of spinal epidural cavernous angiomas: case report

OBJECTIVE

Spinal extramedullary hematomas stemming from cavernous angiomas in the epidural compartment are rare. It is more common for spinal epidural cavernous angiomas to present with slow and progressive myelopathy or radiculopathy. They seldom present with clinical evidence of acute spinal cord or nerve root compression.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

Three consecutive cases of acute spinal cavernous angiomas with overt neurological deficits were presented. These presentations included acute onset of neck pain and tetraparesis, bilateral lower extremity pain and paraparesis, and acute sciatic pain with plantar flexor weakness. The lesions were located in the cervical, thoracic, and sacral spine, respectively. The cases included either abrupt lesion enlargement secondary to a pure intralesional hemorrhage or a cavernous hemorrhage that invaded the epidural space.

INTERVENTION

All patients were treated with either laminotomy or complete resection of the hematoma and cavernoma within 12 hours after admission.

CONCLUSION

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematomas presented with significant pain and acute spinal cord and nerve root compression may represent the manifestation of a cavernous angioma. Appropriate interpretation of preoperative imaging studies may prevent delay in proper management, especially for patients in whom nerve root deficit is the only clinical expression.

Pure epidural cavernous hemangioma of the cervical spine that presented with an acute sensory deficit caused by hemorrhage

Pure epidural cavernous hemangioma of the spine without vertebral involvement is rare. Due to the slow growth of this lesion, the most common symptoms are chronic pain, myelopathy, and radiculopathy. In our case, the patient complained of an acute onset sensory deficit of the C4 dermatome. An MRI revealed an epidural mass with an acute hematoma. Here, we report a case of a pure epidural cavernous hemangioma that presented with acute neurologic symptoms caused by intralesional hemorrhage and an acute epidural hematoma, which were demonstrated on the patient's MRI.

Thoracic spine extradural arteriovenous fistula

BACKGROUND

Spinal extradural arteriovenous fistula is a rare, disabling, but potentially treatable disease. Only 27 cases have been reported so far in the past 40 years.

CASE DESCRIPTION

An 18-year-old adolescent girl developed repeated back pain and mild paraplegia after a training course. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a vessel-like lesion at the spinal extradural space, compressing the spinal medulla at the T5 level. Angiography disclosed a focal fistula fed by branches of the intercostal artery. The vascular mass was surgically removed and confirmed pathologically.

CONCLUSION

Spinal extradural arteriovenous fistulas have an arterial supply that originates outside the spinal dura, with venous draining into the spinal extradural venous plexus. They may lead to myelopathy, radiculopathy, or spontaneous extradural hematoma, due to dilated vein compression, blood stealing, or spinal venous hypertension. Extradural hematoma needs emergency laminectomy and clot evacuation. And extradural arteriovenous fistulas should be treated actively by embolization, surgical resection, or both. Appropriate treatment will stabilize the patient or result in neurological improvement.

Spinal epidural haematoma after blunt trauma to the neck and hyperflection of the cervical spine

Spinal epidural haematomas (sEDH) can be regarded as rare events, in principle a spontaneous and a traumatic aetiology can be distinguished. Spontaneous spinal epidural haematomas can arise, e.g. from vascular malformations, coagulopathies, etc. On the other hand, traumatic sEDH are related to, e.g. spinal trauma or intraoperative vascular injuries. With regard to clinical significance, spinal epidural haematomas accompanied by transient mild neurological symptoms up to lethal outcomes have been observed. We report on a 53-year-old male alcoholic who was found in the kitchen of his asylum in a grotesquely fixed body position, with his head and cervical spine in a maximum anteflected position. A general practitioner had ruled for a non-natural manner of death due to "broken neck" and alcohol intoxication, therefore, the prosecution authorities called for a medicolegal autopsy. At autopsy, paravertebral soft tissue haemorrhage in between the shoulder blades was disclosed. Furthermore, a spinal epidural haematoma, extending from the foramen magnum down to the middle portion of the thoracic spine was found. No fractures of vertebrae nor lesions of spine ligaments or bleedings of intervertebral discs were found. Blood alcohol concentration was determined 1.92 g/l and urine alcohol concentration was 1.76 g/l. Further morphological findings were cerebral oedema and cardiac hypertrophy; the urinary bladder was found filled to bursting. Neuropathological investigations confirmed the presence of the spinal epidural haematoma and assigned lethal significance to this finding. There were no histological signs of axonal injury. Reconstruction revealed that when sitting on a chair in a drunk condition, the individual's upper part of the body had fallen backwards in the corner and subsequently got stuck with maximum anteflection of the head and cervical spine, causing rupture of vessels and spinal epidural haematoma. Acute respiratory failure caused by impairment of the phrenic nerve following spinal epidural haematoma with potential synergism of alcohol intoxication was ascertained as the cause of death.

Spinal Epidural Hematoma After Thrombolysis for Deep Vein Thrombosis with Subsequent Pulmonary Thromboembolism: A Case Report

A 38-year-old male was initially admitted for left leg swelling. He was diagnosed as having deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in the left leg and a pulmonary thromboembolism by contrast-enhanced chest computed tomography (CT) with delayed lower extremity CT. The DVT was treated by thrombolysis and a venous stent. Four hours later, he complained of severe back pain and a sensation of separation of his body and lower extremities; he experienced paraplegia early in the morning of the following day. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a spinal epidural hematoma between T11 and L2, which decompressed following surgery. We, therefore, report a case of a spinal epidural hematoma after thrombolysis in a case of DVT with a pulmonary thromboembolism.

Unintentional vascular uptake in fluoroscopically guided, contrast-confirmed spinal injections: a 1-yr clinical experience and discussion of findings

OBJECTIVE

Documentation of vascular uptake on spinal injection in the context of negative aspiration and negative passive filling of blood into the hub of the needle.

DESIGN

A total of 1,295 consecutive outpatients receiving fluoroscopically guided, contrast-confirmed injection in a multispecialty practice over a 1-yr time frame were retrospectively reviewed with passive observation for inadvertent vascular uptake, passive filling, and required repositioning.

RESULTS

Positive vascular uptake was seen in 2-13% of cases with variable degrees of aspiration, passive filling, and required needle repositionings to avoid vascular uptake.

CONCLUSION

Negative aspiration and allotment for passive filling is inadequate to confirm the absence of vascular injection. Spinal injection will never be risk free. The safest method is fluoroscopically guided, contrast-confirmed injection, which should be considered the current standard of care.

Epidural hematoma after epidural block: implications for its use in pain management

BACKGROUND

Spinal epidural hematoma after spinal puncture such as for injection of steroids for pain management may result in a rare complication of a spinal epidural hematoma causing acute myelopathy. Although this complication is well known with epidural anesthesia, where it is usually seen with impaired hemostasis, there are surprisingly few case reports of epidural hematoma after an epidural steroid block.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A healthy 34-year-old man with no evidence of coagulopathy and not taking antiplatelet medication suddenly had onset of acute cervical myelopathy from a large cervical epidural hematoma 8 days after a cervical epidural steroid block. Following prompt surgical evacuation of the clot, the patient made a near complete recovery.

CONCLUSION

Spinal epidural hematoma after spinal puncture is usually associated with impaired hemostasis. This case illustrates that it may occur in the absence of known risk factors. The delayed onset and the absence of risk factors have implications for the use of this procedure in chronic pain management.

Modified classification of spinal cord vascular lesions

The literature on spinal vascular malformations contains a great deal of confusing terminology. Some of the nomenclature is inconsistent with the lesions described. Based on the experience of the senior author (R.F.S.) in the treatment of more than 130 spinal cord vascular lesions and based on a thorough review of the relevant literature, the authors propose a modified classification system for spinal cord vascular lesions. Lesions are divided into three primary or broad categories: neoplasms, aneurysms, and arteriovenous lesions. Neoplastic vascular lesions include hemangioblastomas and cavernous malformations, both of which occur sporadically and familially. The second category consists of spinal aneurysms, which are rare. The third category, spinal cord arteriovenous lesions, is divided into arteriovenous fistulas and arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Arteriovenous fistulas are subdivided into those that are extradural and those that are intradural, with intradural lesions categorized as either dorsal or ventral. Arteriovenous malformations are subdivided into extradural-intradural and intradural malformations. Intradural lesions are further divided into intramedullary, intramedullary-extramedullary, and conus medullaris, a new category of AVM. This modified classification system for vascular lesions of the spinal cord, based on pathophysiology, neuroimaging features, intraoperative observations, and neuroanatomy, offers several advantages. First, it includes all surgical vascular lesions that affect the spinal cord. Second, it guides treatment by classifying lesions based on location and pathophysiology. Finally, it eliminates the confusion produced by the multitude of unrelated nomenclatural terms found in the literature.

Resolution of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma without surgery: report of two cases

STUDY DESIGN

Case report.

OBJECTIVE

To report two cases of spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma that completely resolved, clinically and radiographically, without surgical treatment.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

The treatment of spinal epidural hematoma is usually surgical. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma is an uncommon phenomenon and may be of uncertain cause.

METHODS

One patient with acute onset of complete quadriplegia and another with complete paraplegia caused by spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma were treated without surgery.

RESULTS

Both patients recovered nearly completely with respect to their neurologic function at 3-month follow-up. No source of hematoma was ever identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma should be considered in the differential diagnosis of sudden onset of spinal cord compression in association with back pain. Patients initially presenting with severe neurologic dysfunction are potential candidates for conservative management if they demonstrate rapid and progressive improvement in neurologic function. Patients treated in this manner can have nearly complete restoration of function.

Spontaneous vertex extradural hematoma: considerations about causes. Case report and review of the literature

A 36-year-old woman with an uneventful medical history was admitted to the emergency department following an initial generalized seizure. Neuroimaging workup disclosed a homogeneous mass at the vertex, which first was diagnosed as vertex meningioma. Anticonvulsant drug therapy was administered and the patient was discharged. Two months later the patient was examined in our neurosurgery department for additional therapeutic recommendations. A repeated neuroimaging examination showed considerable regression of the lesion. The findings on magnetic resonance imaging were consistent with those of a regressing extradural hematoma (EDH). A complete blood-coagulation study displayed no evidence of abnormality. Thorough questioning of the patient revealed no history of pericranial infection or head trauma occurring within the last 2 years. The final diagnosis was spontaneously occurring vertex EDH. In this report the authors describe the clinical and neuroimaging features of the case as well as the management strategy, and discuss etiological aspects within the context of a careful review of the literature.

Acute cervical epidural hematoma: case report

A 74 year-old patient with a nocturnal onset of neck and chest pain was brought to an emergency clinic. Physical examination and cardiac assessment were normal. Three hours after the addmittance, a flaccid paralysis of the four limbs supervened. Suspecting of an unusual onset of central nervous system infection, a lumbar puncture was performed, yielding 20 ml of normal cerebrospinal fluid. Thirty oinutes after the puncture, the patient completely regained neurological funcion. He was then referred to a General Hospital where a computed tomography (CT) scan was done showing a large cervical epidural bleeding in the posterolateral region of C4/C5 extending to C7/Th1, along with a C6 vertebral body hemangioma. A magnetic resonance imaging revealed the same CT findings. A normal selective angiography of vertebral arteries, carotid arteries and thyreocervical trunk was carried out. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma (ASSEH) is a rare but dramatic cause of neurological impairment. In this article we report a fortunate case of complete recovery after an unusual spine cord decompression. We also review the current literature concerning diagnosis and treatment of ASSEH.

Magnetic resonance imaging-monitored conservative management of traumatic spinal epidural hematomas. Report of four cases

Spinal epidural hematomas (SEHs) are uncommon complications of traumatic injury to the spine. Emergency surgical evacuation is the standard treatment. Although it is recognized in the literature, the possibility of nonsurgical treatment of traumatic SEH is far from being codified. The authors report excellent outcomes in four conservatively managed patients who had sustained a severe spine injury with fracture of the lumbar vertebral body and in whom traumatic SEHs were diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging. Although in the authors' experience a good spontaneous outcome in this subgroup of minimally symptomatic patients harboring moderate-sized SEHs has been achieved, further studies are necessary to understand the real spectrum of nonsurgical treatment of such lesions.