Acute life-threatening hemorrhage in patients with head and neck cancer presenting with carotid blowout syndrome: follow-up results after initial hemostasis with covered-stent placement

Endovascular Management of Post-Irradiated Carotid Blowout Syndrome in Patients with Lower Neck Cancers

OBJECTIVE

Lower neck cancers (LNCs) include specific tumour types and have some different vascular supply or collaterals from other head and neck cancers. This prospective study evaluated the outcome of endovascular management of post-irradiated carotid blowout syndrome (PCBS) in patients with LNC by comparing reconstructive management (RE) and deconstructive management (DE).

METHODS

This was a single centre, prospective cohort study. Patients with LNC complicated by PCBS between 2015 and 2021 were enrolled for RE or DE. RE was performed by stent graft placement covering the pathological lesion and preventive external carotid artery (ECA) embolisation without balloon test occlusion (BTO). DE was performed after successful BTO by permanent coil or adhesive agent embolisation of the internal carotid artery (ICA) and ECA to common carotid artery, or ICA occlusion alone if the pathological lesion was ICA only. Cross occlusion included the proximal and distal ends of the pathological lesion in all patients. Re-bleeding events, haemostatic period, and neurological complications were evaluated.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients (mean age 58.5 years; 56 male) were enrolled, including 28 patients undergoing RE and 31 patients undergoing DE. Three patients originally grouped to DE were transferred to RE owing to failed BTO. The results of RE vs. DE were as follows: rebleeding events, 13/28 (46%) vs. 10/31 (32%) (p = .27); haemostatic period, 9.4 ± 14.0 months vs. 14.2 ± 27.8 months (p = .59); neurological complication, 4/28 (14%) vs. 5/31 (16%) (p = .84); and survival time, 11.8 ± 14.6 months vs. 15.1 ± 27.5 months (p = .61).

CONCLUSION

No difference in rebleeding risk or neurological complications was observed between the DE and RE groups. RE could be used as a potential routine treatment for PCBS in patients with LNC.

Acute and definitive management of oropharyngeal hemorrhage in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx

BACKGROUND

Massive oropharyngeal bleeding post-chemoradiotherapy is a life-threatening condition that requires emergent management.

METHODS

This retrospective case series included 11 patients with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma who suffered from massive bleeding during or following treatment with definitive chemoradiotherapy. Details of acute and definitive management of oropharyngeal bleeding are reported.

RESULTS

Nine of 11 hemorrhagic events occurred a mean (SD) of 88.6 days (53.6) after radiotherapy. Airway intubation and embolization were performed in 10 of 11 patients, followed by surgery in 7 of 11 patients. The most commonly embolized vessels were the external carotid and lingual arteries. At the time of discharge, 3 of 11 patients had a tracheostomy, and 7 of 11 continued to use a gastrostomy tube. Four patients died.

CONCLUSIONS

Hemorrhagic complications in oropharyngeal cancer treatment require emergent responses. Developing a workflow for coordination between multidisciplinary teams can maximize probability of survival and decrease morbidity.

Carotid Blowout Syndrome in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: Management of Patients At Risk for CBS

OBJECTIVES

Carotid blowout syndrome (CBS) is an acute, rare life-threatening hemorrhage that occurs in patients with a history of head and neck cancer and radiation therapy. The primary objective of this review was to identify risk factors and assess treatment and survival outcomes following CBS.

METHODS

A systematic review of published literature was performed. Information including risk factors, treatment, and outcomes of CBS were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 49 articles and 2220 patients were included in the systematic review. Risk factors for developing CBS included a history of radiation therapy, wound complications, and advanced tumor stage. The initial management of CBS included establishing a stable airway, gaining hemostasis, and repletion of blood loss. Endovascular and surgical procedures treat CBS with infrequent rates of rebleeding and periprocedural complications. Short-term survival following treatment of CBS shows high survival rates when considering CBS-related complications and underlying disease, however, long-term survival related to the underlying disease demonstrated high mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Identifying patients at risk for CBS enables practitioners to counsel patients on life-saving interventions and expected outcomes following treatment of CBS. Treatment of CBS is associated with high short-term survival, although long-term survival related to underlying disease is low.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

N/A Laryngoscope, 133:576-587, 2023.

A Clinical Series in Patients with Naso-Pharyngeal Cancer and Their Outcomes with Stent Graft Treatment for Sentinel Bleeding to Prevent Frank Carotid Rupture

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of heparin-bonded VIABAHN stent graft for carotid rupture in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC).

METHODS

A total of 1,596 patients with NPC were enrolled. Fifteen patients (8 male and 7 female), who developed carotid artery rupture (CAR) after radiotherapy between January 2016 and June 2019, were retrospectively analyzed. Complications and mortality were assessed at 12 months postoperatively.

RESULTS

The incidence of carotid burst syndrome in the NPC cohort was 0.94%. The distribution of site of arterial rupture was as follows: common carotid artery (4 cases), C1 segment of internal carotid artery (8 cases), and C2 segment of internal carotid artery (3 cases). All patients successfully underwent emergency deployment of the heparin-bonded VIABAHN to seal off the ruptured carotid artery. The survival rate as of 12-month follow-up was 80.0%. Three patients died of short-term rebleeding, lung infection, and tumor progression. No stent-related complications occurred in our cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Heparin-bonded VIABAHN-covered stents may be a safe and effective treatment option for carotid rupture in patients with NPC.

Risk factors for rebleeding and long-term outcomes in patients with head and neck cancer bleeding: a multicenter study

Background

Acute, catastrophic bleeding in patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) is challenging and also a burden for their families and frontline physicians. This study analyzed the risk factors for rebleeding and long-term outcomes in these patients with HNC.

Methods

Patients who presented to the emergency department (ED) with HNC bleeding were enrolled in this study (N = 231). Variables of patients with or without rebleeding were compared, and associated factors were investigated using Cox’s proportional hazard model.

Results

Of the 231 patients enrolled, 112 (48.5%) experienced a recurrent bleeding event. The cumulative rebleeding incidence rate was 23% at 30 days, 49% at 180 days, and 56% at 1 year. Multivariate Cox regression analyses demonstrated that overweight-to-obesity (HR = 0.52, 95% CI 0.28–0.98, p = 0.043), laryngeal cancer (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.13, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.07–4.23, p = 0.031), chemoradiation (HR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.001–2.94, p = 0.049), and second primary cancer (HR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.13–2.70, p = 0.012) are significant independent predictors of rebleeding, and the prognostic factors for overall survival included underweight (HR = 1.89, 95% CI 1.22–2.93, p = 0.004), heart rate > 110 beats/min (HR = 1.58, 95% CI 1.04–2.39, p = 0.032), chemoradiation (HR = 2.31, 95% CI 1.18–4.52, p = 0.015), and local recurrence (HR = 1.74, 95% CI 1.14–2.67, p = 0.011).

Conclusions

Overweight-to-obesity is a protective factor, while laryngeal cancer, chemoradiation and a second primary cancer are risk factors for rebleeding in patients with HNC. Our results may assist physicians in risk stratification of patients with HNC bleeding.

Management of postradiation late hemorrhage following treatment for HPV-positive oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Acute oropharyngeal hemorrhage is a serious complication for patients with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), particularly in patients with a history of radiation therapy (RT).

METHODS

Retrospective case series from at a tertiary care center for treated patients with HPV-positive OPSCC presenting with oropharyngeal hemorrhage.

RESULTS

Median time from completion of chemoradiation to first hemorrhagic event was 186 days (range 66-1466 days). Seven patients (58%) required intervention to secure their airway. All patients were evaluated for endovascular intervention, six (50%) were embolized. Eight patients (67%) had a second hemorrhagic event; median time to second bleed was 22 days (range 3-90 days).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute oropharyngeal hemorrhage is a sequelae following treatment for HPV-positive OPSCC. The majority of bleeds occurred within a year of completion of treatment. While more research is needed to determine optimal treatment paradigms, endovascular intervention should be considered, even if noninvasive imaging does not demonstrate active bleeding.

In-Hospital and Long-Term Outcomes in Patients with Head and Neck Cancer Bleeding

Background and Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to elucidate the in-hospital and long-term outcomes of patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) bleeding and to analyze the risk factors for mortality. Materials and Methods: We included patients who presented to the emergency department (ED) with HNC bleeding. Variables of patients who survived and died were compared and associated factors were investigated by logistic regression and Cox’s proportional hazard model. Results: A total of 125 patients were enrolled in the present study. Fifty-nine (52.8%) patients experienced a recurrent bleeding event. The in-hospital mortality rate was 16%. The overall survival at 1, 3 and 5 years was 48%, 41% and 34%, respectively. The median survival time was 9.2 months. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that risk factors for in-hospital mortality were inotropic support (OR = 10.41; Cl 1.81–59.84; p = 0.009), hypopharyngeal cancer (OR = 4.32; Cl 1.29–14.46; p = 0.018), and M stage (OR = 5.90; Cl 1.07–32.70; p = 0.042). Multivariate Cox regression analyses indicate that heart rate >110 (beats/min) (HR = 2.02; Cl 1.16–3.51; p = 0.013), inotropic support (HR = 3.25; Cl 1.20–8.82; p = 0.021), and hypopharygneal cancer (HR = 2.22; Cl 1.21–4.06; p = 0.010) were all significant independent predictors of poorer overall survival. Conclusions: HNC bleeding commonly represents the advanced disease stage. Recognition of associated factors aids in the risk stratification of patients with HNC bleeding.

Extracranial/Intracranial Vascular Bypass in the Treatment of Head and Neck Cancer - Related Carotid Blowout Syndrome

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

To investigate the endovascular intervention or extracranial/intracranial (EC/IC) vascular bypass in the management of patients with head and neck cancer-related carotid blowout syndrome (CBS).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of clinical data of patients with head and neck cancer-related CBS treated by endovascular intervention and/or EC/IC vascular bypass, analysis of its bleeding control, neurological complications, and survival results.

RESULTS

Thrity-seven patients were included. Twenty-five were associated with external carotid artery (ECA); twelve were associated with internal or common carotid artery (ICA/CCA). All patients with ECA hemorrhage were treated with endovascular embolization. Of the 12 patients with ICA/CCA hemorrhage, 9 underwent EC/IC bypass, 1 underwent endovascular embolization, and 3 underwent endovascular stenting. For patients with ECA-related CBS, the median survival was 6 months, and the 90-day, 1-year, and 2-year survival rates were 67.1%, 44.7%, and 33.6%, respectively; the estimated rebleeding risk at 1-month, 6-month, and 2-year was 7.1%, 20.0%, and 31.6%, respectively. For patients with ICA/CCA-related CBS, the median survival was 22.5 months, and the 90-day, 1-year, and 2-year survival rates were 92.3%, 71.8%, and 41.0%, respectively; the estimated rebleeding risk at 1 month, 6 months, and 2 years is 7.7%,15.4%, and 15.4%, respectively. ICA/CCA-related CBS patients have significantly longer survival time and lower risk of rebleeding, which may be related to the more use of EC/IC vascular bypass as a definite treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with ICA/CCA-related CBS, if there is more stable hemodynamics, longer expected survival, EC/IC vascular bypass is preferred.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 131:1548-1556, 2021.

Endovascular Considerations in Traumatic Injury of the Carotid and Vertebral Arteries

Cervical carotid and vertebral artery traumatic injuries can have a devastating natural history. This article reviews the epidemiology, mechanisms of injury, clinical presentation, and classification systems pertinent to consideration of endovascular treatment. The growing role of modern endovascular techniques for the treatment of these diseases is presented to equip endovascular surgeons with a framework for critically assessing patients presenting with traumatic cervical cerebrovascular injury.

Early versus late oral feeding following total (pharyngo)laryngectomy: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Timing of oral feeding following total laryngectomy is a contentious issue with highly varied practices. Multiple database search was performed to identify studies comparing outcomes of early (≤5 days) versus late (>5 days) oral feeding. Bias assessment was carried out using Cochrane bias tool. Random-effects meta-analysis was used. The review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The rate of pharyngocutaneous fistula (PCF) in randomized control trials (RCTs) in early versus late feeding was 15.2% versus 11.7% (RR 1.35, 95%CI [0.68-2.7], p = 0.40). The rate of PCF in the cohort studies was 14.1% versus 20.5% (RR 1.0, 95%CI [0.76-1.3], p = 0.98). The length of hospital stay was significantly shorter in the early feeding group (mean difference (days) -4.68 (-6.2 to -3.1, p < 0.0001). Early oral feeding appears to be safe and is associated with shorter hospital stay. However, the quality of evidence is low and the patient characteristics are not representative of current practices.

Comprehensive Treatment Strategy for Internal Carotid Artery Blowout Syndrome Caused by Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a treatment strategy for internal carotid artery blowout syndrome caused by nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective analysis of a case series was performed.

SETTING

Carotid blowout syndrome is a catastrophic complication caused by malignant tumor of the skull base.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis based on 69 patients with internal carotid artery blowout syndrome admitted to our center between April 2018 and January 2020 was performed. The patients were divided into 2 groups: an EBBA (internal carotid artery embolization + bypass based on American Society of Intervention and Therapeutic Neuroradiology/Society of Interventional Radiology [ASITN/SIR]) group and an embolization/stent group. The follow-up time was 6 to 9 months.

RESULTS

In the EBBA group, 41 patients (41/49, 83.7%) survived. Forty patients had a satisfactory quality of life after 3 months. No death occurred within 3 months. Nonoperative death occurred in 8 cases (8/49, 16.3%). The rate of mortality and disability was 18.4% (9/49). In the embolization/stent group, 16 patients (16/20, 80%) survived. Nonoperative death occurred in 4 cases (4/20, 20%), 3 of which occurred within 1 to 3 months. Four cases reported Modified Rankin Scale ≥2 after 3 months. The rate of mortality and disability was 40% (8/20).

CONCLUSION

A comprehensive revascularization strategy for internal carotid artery (ICA) embolization and intracranial and extracranial bypass grafting based on ASITN/SIR score for ICA blowout syndrome patients not only can prolong the patient survival but also greatly improve the survival probability and quality of life as well as reduce their rate of mortality or disability.

Management of Cutaneously Exposed Carotid Stents in Recurrent and Unresectable Head and Neck Cancer

Objective Carotid blowout syndrome (CBS) is a rare but potentially life-threatening complication of head and neck cancer (HNC) treatment. Patients with CBS are managed with covered stents, limited published information exists regarding the management of delayed complications, specifically cutaneous exposure of stents. Here, we present our experience managing cutaneously exposed carotid artery stents (CAS) in patients with recurrent and unresectable HNC.

Methods A single-institution retrospective analysis was performed to identify recurrent HNC patients who underwent CAS placement for CBS and complicated with cutaneous exposure of the stent between 2014 and 2016. Medical records were reviewed with attention to treatment history, pre-, intra-, and postoperative courses, anticoagulation needs, and durability of the reconstruction.

Results We identified three patients who presented with a right CAS fully exposed in a large, ulcerative wound. All patients underwent a right pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF) to cover the exposed stent within 30 days of presentation to our institution. Two of three patients attained adequate coverage of the stent for more than 30 days, while one experienced partial flap dehiscence within 12 days. Two patients developed postoperative chest hematomas, which were managed conservatively. Two of three patients were able to undergo further palliative adjuvant treatments within 60 days of the initial surgical procedure.

Conclusion In this small series, durable coverage of an exposed carotid artery with PMMF was successful in two of three patients with extensive disease burden and complex prior treatment history. No mortalities occurred within 30 days postoperatively.

Interventional Management of Head and Neck Tumors

Advancements in medical imaging and device technology allow minimal invasive procedures for the diagnosis and treatment of various disorders. For the management of tumors in head and neck region, these image-guided interventions play essential role in the often used multidisciplinary approach. Tissue sampling under ultrasound or computed tomography guidance is generally the first step to reach a pathological diagnosis. For head and neck tumors with high vascularity, embolization using particulate matter, liquid embolic agents, or coils is used to achieve successful tumor resection with minimal blood loss. Hemorrhage related to head and neck tumors can be evaluated and managed with endovascular techniques with minimal morbidity and mortality. Intra-arterial chemotherapy, radiofrequency ablation, and cryotherapy are new techniques for the management of advanced head and neck cancer which may serve as an alternative to achieve locoregional control and survival when curative resection may not be feasible.

Carotid blowout syndrome: modern trends in management

Carotid blowout syndrome (CBS) refers to rupture of the carotid artery and is an uncommon complication of head and neck cancer that can be rapidly fatal without prompt diagnosis and intervention. CBS develops when a damaged arterial wall cannot sustain its integrity against the patient’s blood pressure, mainly in patients who have undergone surgical procedures and radiotherapy due to cancer of the head and neck, or have been reirradiated for a recurrent or second primary tumor in the neck. Among patients irradiated prior to surgery, CBS is usually a result of wound breakdown, pharyngocutaneous fistula and infection. This complication has often been fatal in the past, but at the present time, early diagnosis and modern technology applied to its management have decreased morbidity and mortality rates. In addition to analysis of the causes and consequences of CBS, the purpose of this paper is to critically review methods for early diagnosis of this complication and establish individualized treatment based on endovascular procedures for each patient.

Stent grafts in patients with carotid blowout syndrome: Outcome and antiplatelet therapy in preventive versus emergency cases

BACKGROUND

Carotid blowout syndrome due to tumor infiltration, fistulas, and therapy-related necrosis can occur as late as years after the treatment. Reporting our experiences with preventive and acute treatment with stent grafts and discussing different ways of antiplatelet therapy.

METHODS

We reviewed all patients between 2010 and 2016 who underwent stent graft placement and analyzed outcome, complications, and antiplatelet regime.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients were treated in 24 sessions (n = 7 threatened, n = 5 imminent, and n = 12 acute bleeding). The antiplatelet regime covered the entire range from aspirin only to loading doses of aspirin/clopidogrel, perioperative heparin, and aspirin/clopidogrel for 12 months followed by lifelong aspirin. Rare complications were not associated with the preprocedural or periprocedural but were associated with the postprocedural antiplatelet regime.

CONCLUSION

Most complications of stent graft implantations due to a carotid blowout syndrome occur postprocedurally: rare thrombotic events are linked to not taking a medication and frequent rebleedings may be reduced by an earlier reduction of dual-antiplatelet to mono-antiplatelet therapy.

Saccular pseudoaneurysm of the left common carotid artery in an adolescent: Management with a covered stent

An adolescent patient with a previous history of surgical repair for interrupted aortic arch type B presented with an asymptomatic, saccular pseudoaneurysm of the proximal, common left carotid artery, identified on a follow-up magnetic resonance angiography of the thoracic large vessels. The pseudoaneurysm was successfully excluded with a covered stent. Clinical and radiological follow-up after 2 years was uneventful.

Safety and effectiveness of endovascular embolization or stent-graft reconstruction for treatment of acute carotid blowout syndrome in patients with head and neck cancer: Case series and systematic review of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Indications for treatment and outcomes after endovascular management of carotid blowout syndrome for patients with head and neck cancer are not well defined. We investigated the safety and effectiveness of endovascular embolization and stent-graft reconstruction.

METHODS

A literature review was performed for studies published between 2001 and 2015 with relevance to treatment outcomes. Our institutional database was examined to identify patients treated with endovascular techniques.

RESULTS

A total of 266 patients were included. Rates of procedural stroke were higher after embolization of internal carotid artery (ICA)/common carotid artery (CCA) compared to stent graft (embolization 10.3%; stent graft 2.5%; P < .02). Stent graft of ICA/CCA was associated with higher rates of recurrent bleeding (embolization 9.1%; stent graft 31.9%; P < .01).

CONCLUSION

Both embolization and stent grafts are safe therapeutic options for acute carotid blowout syndrome. Embolization for ICA/CCA carotid blowout syndrome was associated with higher risks of procedural stroke and lower recurrent bleeding compared to stent grafts.

Endovascular treatment of carotid blowout syndrome

BACKGROUND

Carotid blowout syndrome (CBS) is a life-threatening complication of head and neck cancer and radiation therapy. Endovascular techniques have emerged as preferable alternatives to surgical ligation for treatment of CBS. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to study periprocedural complications and outcomes of CBS patients treated with coil embolization and covered stents.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search identified studies that reported outcomes of endovascular treatment of CBS published from 2000 to April 2016. Outcomes included technical success, postoperative rebleeding, survival time, and perioperative complications. Meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model.

RESULTS

Twenty-five noncomparative studies with 559 patients were included in the meta-analysis. Technical success rate was 100% in both coiling and covered stenting groups. Median survival time was 3 months (range, 0-96 months) for all CBS patients. Overall perioperative mortality was 11% (95% confidence interval [CI], 5%-17%). Postoperative rebleeding rate was 27% (95% CI, 19%-367%). Perioperative stroke and infection rates were 3% (95% CI, 1%-6%) and 1% (95% CI, 0%-5%), respectively. At last follow-up, 39% of patients were alive (95% CI, 29%-48%).

CONCLUSIONS

Coil embolization and stent grafts may both be safe treatment options for CBS with few perioperative complications and high rates of technical success, but prognosis after treatment remains poor. In general, noncomparative studies do not demonstrate differences between the two techniques with respect to periprocedural complications and patient outcomes.

Transarterial Embolization in Maxillofacial Intractable Potentially Life-Threatening Hemorrhage

PURPOSE

Although transarterial embolization (TAE) of vascular lesions with embolizing agents through angiographic catheters has been used for more than 45 years, reports of life-threatening maxillofacial bleeding are relatively rare and have not been updated. The authors review treatment modalities, present their experience of the past 21 years, and suggest a comprehensive algorithm and guidelines for the use of TAE in the treatment of intractable life-threatening maxillofacial hemorrhage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This article describes 28 patients treated with TAE for severe bleeding that did not respond to conservative therapies. Of these, 13 had uncontrolled epistaxis, 9 were oncologic patients, 4 were postsurgical patients, and 2 were trauma patients.

RESULTS

Details of patients' medical history, failed conservative therapy administered before TAE, imaging results, and blood vessels involved are presented, as are the TAE procedures and materials used, outcome, and complications. All these are discussed in relation to the available updated literature. All 9 oncologic patients (100%) had been treated with chemotherapy before the uncontrolled bleeding, and 7 also had radiotherapy administered to the maxillofacial region. Continuous anticoagulant therapy also seemed to predict such bleeding episodes. TAE resolved the bleeding in all 28 cases and rapidly in 90% of cases. Only in 3 oncologic cases did continued bleeding require 3 to 4 consecutive TAE sessions and combinations of embolizing agents.

CONCLUSIONS

The reported high rate of success could be the result of careful techniques, appropriate preoperative imaging, highly professional personnel, and intraoperative and perioperative treatments.

Contemporary management of carotid blowout syndrome utilizing endovascular techniques

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

To illustrate complex interdisciplinary decision making and the utility of modern endovascular techniques in the management of patients with carotid blowout syndrome (CBS).

STUDY DESIGNS

Retrospective chart review.

METHODS

Patients treated with endovascular strategies and/or surgical modalities were included. Control of hemorrhage, neurological, and survival outcomes were studied.

RESULTS

Between 2004 and 2014, 33 patients had 38 hemorrhagic events related to head and neck cancer that were managed with endovascular means. Of these, 23 were localized to the external carotid artery (ECA) branches and five localized to the ECA main trunk; nine were related to the common carotid artery (CCA) or internal carotid artery (ICA), and one event was related to the innominate artery. Seven events related to the CCA/ICA or innominate artery were managed with endovascular sacrifice, whereas three cases were managed with a flow-preserving approach (covered stent). Only one patient developed permanent hemiparesis. In two of the three cases where the flow-preserving approach was used, the covered stent eventually became exposed via the overlying soft tissue defect, and definitive management using carotid revascularization or resection was employed to prevent further hemorrhage. In cases of soft tissue necrosis, vascularized tissues were used to cover the great vessels as applicable.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of modern endovascular approaches for management of acute CBS yields optimal results and should be employed in a coordinated manner by the head and neck surgeon and the neurointerventionalist.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4. Laryngoscope, 2016 127:383-390, 2017.

Carotid blowout syndrome in patients treated by larynx cancer

Introduction

Carotid blowout syndrome is an uncommon complication for patient treated by head and neck tumors, and related to a high mortality rate.

Objective

The aim of this study was to study the risk of carotid blowout in a large cohort of patients treated only by larynx cancer.

Methods

Retrospective analysis of patients older than 18 years, treated by larynx cancer who developed a carotid blowout syndrome in a tertiary academic centre.

Results

197 patients met the inclusion criteria, 192 (98.4%) were male and 5 (1.6%) were female. 6 (3%) patients developed a carotid blowout syndrome, 4 patients had a carotid blowout syndrome located in the internal carotid artery and 2 in the common carotid artery. According to the type of rupture, 3 patients suffer a type I, 2 patients a type III and 1 patient a type II. Five of those patients had previously undergone radiotherapy and all patients underwent total laryngectomy. We found a statistical correlation between open surgical procedures (p = 0.004) and radiotherapy (p = 0.023) and the development of a carotid blowout syndrome.

Conclusion

Carotid blowout syndrome is an uncommon complication in patients treated by larynx tumours. According to our results, patient underwent radiotherapy and patients treated with open surgical procedures with pharyngeal opening have a major risk to develop this kind of complication.

Transarterial embolization in the management of intractable epistaxis: the angiographic findings and results based on etiologies

CONCLUSIONS

Transarterial embolization (TAE) appears to be a safe and effective treatment for patients with intractable epistaxis, despite different etiologies or angiography findings. Idiopathic epistaxis is prone to present with negative angiographic findings.

OBJECTIVE

To retrospectively evaluate the safety and effectiveness of TAE for intractable epistaxis, and focus on the factors of etiology and angiographic findings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From March 2008 to December 2014, the data of 43 patients with intractable bleeding undergoing TAE were reviewed. The outcomes of interventional therapy were assessed according to different etiology (malignant or benign disease) and angiographic finding (positive or negative angiogram).

RESULTS

Positive angiographic findings were found in 11 of 12 cases with malignant diseases and 22 of 31 cases with benign diseases, respectively (p = 0.237). Among the 10 cases with negative angiographic findings, the negative angiography rate of idiopathic epistaxis was higher than that of epistaxis with definite etiology (p = 0.003). Bleeding was controlled successfully in all of the 43 patients after embolization. During the mean follow-up period of 24.0 ± 16.7 months, five patients relapsed. No significant difference was found in recurrence rates between malignant and benign diseases or between positive and negative angiography (p = 0.241, p = 0.704, respectively).

Follow-up for covered stent treatment of carotid blow-out syndrome in patients with head and neck cancer

OBJECTIVE

Carotid blow-out syndrome (CBS) is a life-threatening complication of head and neck cancer (HNC). One of the various methods used for emergency management of CBS is covered stent placement (CSP). Our initial experience in CSP is evaluated and compared with reports in the literature.

METHODS

This study analysed 17 patients with HNC who had received CSP for CBS at Kaohsiung Medical University Chung-Ho Memorial Hospital from May 2005 to December 2013. The medical records and images for these patients were retrospectively reviewed to evaluate the causes of CBS, treatment success rates and complications.

RESULTS

The initial angiography success rate was 100%. Procedural or periprocedural complications were noted in two (12%) cases, both suffering from cerebral vascular accident (CVA). Short-term complications were noted in eight (47%) cases, including four rebleeding cases and four CVA cases. Medium- to long-term complications were noted in nine cases, which included two asymptomatic in-stent thrombosis cases, one symptomatic CVA case, two abscess formation cases and four rebleeding cases. Overall, eight (47%) cases of rebleeding occurred during follow-up. Three of the eight cases were fatal, accounting for 27% of the all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSION

Although CSP is considered effective for achieving haemostasis in patients with HNC with CBS, the medium- to long-term outcomes are unfavourable owing to high risks of rebleeding, CVA and other complications. Therefore, CSP should be considered a temporary life-saving technique rather than a definitive treatment.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Analysis of the relatively large series of patients with HNC in this study suggests that CSP is a useful temporary treatment for CBS.

Outcomes of endovascular occlusion and stenting in the treatment of carotid blowout

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Carotid blowout is a life threatening complication of invasive head and neck cancers and their treatments. This is commonly treated with endovascular embolization and carotid stenting. Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample, we report the immediate clinical results of patients receiving embolization and/or stenting for treatment of carotid blowout associated with head and neck cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample from the period 2003-2011, we defined carotid blowout patients as those with head and neck malignancies receiving carotid stenting and/or endovascular embolization without open surgery. Outcomes studied included mortality, acute ischemic stroke, hemiplegia/paresis, and other post-operative neurologic complications. Outcomes for the endovascular embolization and carotid stenting group were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 1218 patients underwent endovascular treatment for carotid blowout. Of these, 1080 patients (88.6%) underwent embolization procedures and 138 patients (11.4%) underwent carotid stenting. The mortality rate of endovascular embolization patients was similar to that of carotid stenting patients (8.0%, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 6.5%-9.7% versus 10.2%, 95% CI=6.0%-16.4%, p = 0.36). Stroke rate was similar between embolization patients and stenting patients (2.3%, 95% CI=1.6%-3.4% vs. 3.4%, 95% CI=1.3%-8.4%, p = 0.43). Hemiplegia rates were significantly higher rate in stenting patients compared with endovascular occlusion patients (3.8%, 95% CI=1.3%-8.4% vs. 1.4%, 95% CI=1.4%-2.4%, p = 0.05). The rate of post-operative neurologic complications was higher in stenting patients compared with embolization patients (6.5%, 95% CI=3.3%-12.1% vs. 1.4%, 95% CI=0.9%-2.4%, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Given the natural history of carotid blowout, carotid stenting and endovascular embolization are acceptable means of treating this disease. Endovascular embolization remains the most common treatment among patients with head and neck cancers with lower overall rates of post-operative neurologic complications, including hemiplegia/paresis and stroke.

Cervical-petrous internal carotid artery pseudoaneurysm presenting with otorrhagia treated with endovascular techniques

Cervical-petrous internal carotid artery (CP-ICA) pseudoaneurysms are rare and have different etiologies, presentations, and treatment options. A middle-aged patient with a history of chronic otitis media presented with acute otorrhagia and was found to have a left-sided CP-ICA pseudoaneurysm. The patient was a poor surgical candidate with difficult arterial access. The pseudoaneurysm was treated with stand-alone coiling via a left brachial approach with persistent contrast filling seen only in the aneurysm neck at the end of the procedure. The patient re-presented 12 days later with repeat hemorrhage and rapid enlargement of the neck remnant, and was treated with a covered stent via a transcervical common carotid artery cut-down. A covered stent may provide a more definitive treatment for CP-ICA pseudoaneurysms compared with standalone coiling.

Cervical-petrous internal carotid artery pseudoaneurysm presenting with otorrhagia treated with endovascular techniques

Cervical-petrous internal carotid artery (CP-ICA) pseudoaneurysms are rare and have different etiologies, presentations, and treatment options. A middle-aged patient with a history of chronic otitis media presented with acute otorrhagia and was found to have a left-sided CP-ICA pseudoaneurysm. The patient was a poor surgical candidate with difficult arterial access. The pseudoaneurysm was treated with stand-alone coiling via a left brachial approach with persistent contrast filling seen only in the aneurysm neck at the end of the procedure. The patient re-presented 12 days later with repeat hemorrhage and rapid enlargement of the neck remnant, and was treated with a covered stent via a transcervical common carotid artery cut-down. A covered stent may provide a more definitive treatment for CP-ICA pseudoaneurysms compared with standalone coiling.

Interventional management of head and neck emergencies: carotid blowout

Involvement of the carotid artery by malignant processes of the head and neck with compromise of vessel integrity and rupture-"carotid blowout syndrome" (CBS)-is one of the most devastating complications of malignancy. Most often, it is associated with squamous cell cancer and almost always in patients who have undergone prior radiation therapy. CBS is classified as threatened, impending, or acute. Bleeding into the oral cavity or from areas of skin breakdown is a frightening experience for patients and their families and often a terminal event. Prognosis is poor with up to 50% mortality and morbidity, and surgical options are limited and risky. Endovascular management with vessel sacrifice or stent placement has become the principle treatment option in this patient population, though still associated with procedural complications, often neurologic, that can occur acutely or in a delayed fashion. This article reviews techniques and outcomes associated with endovascular treatment of CBS.

Predisposing factors, management, and prognostic evaluation of acute carotid blowout syndrome

BACKGROUND

Massive hemorrhages occur in 6%-10% of patients with advanced cancer. Acute carotid blowout syndrome is the most severe massive hemorrhagic complication in head and neck cancer patients.

METHODS

This was a single institute, retrospective, case control study. A total of 45 patients were enrolled in this study. The predisposing factors, management, and prognosis of acute carotid blowout syndrome were evaluated.

RESULTS

Among the baseline characteristics, the site of the primary tumor (P = .003), origin of bleeding (P = .048), method of intervention (P = .005), and time to intervention (P = .006) were significantly different factors between survivor and nonsurvivor patients. After 24 hours of onset, a Glasgow Coma Scale score (P = .000), the use of inotropic agents (P = .007), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (P = .019) were significantly predicting factors for outcome. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed bleeding from common carotid artery was an independent factor for long-term survival (odds ratio, 25.951; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.373-490.441; P < .030). The median overall survival of survivors and nonsurvivors were 12.1 (range, 3.7-118.7; 95% CI, 4.33-54.87) and 11.9 (range, 0.7-53.5; 95% CI, 5.78-25.69) months, respectively (P = .092).

CONCLUSIONS

Early and aggressive intervention is important for the successful management of acute carotid blowout syndrome. The Glasgow Coma Scale score, the use of inotropic agents, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio 24 hours after the onset were predictive factors for patients' outcomes. Bleeding from common carotid artery is an independent prognostic factor in multivariate analysis. Long-term survival can be achieved after successful management.

Polytetrafluoroethylene-covered nitinol stent graft for treatment of carotid artery blowout syndrome in head and neck cancer patients

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

To evaluate the efficacy, tolerance, and outcomes of covered stents in the treatment of carotid blowout syndrome (CBS) in head and neck cancer patients.

STUDY DESIGN

Individual retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical and image files of all 20 consecutive head and neck cancer patients treated with covered stent grafts for CBS. Six acute, 12 impending, and two threatened cases of CBS were treated in patients who all had previously received radiation therapy. We evaluated the feasibility, hemostatic efficacy, survival without bleeding, and complications.

RESULTS

The etiologies of CBS were as follows: group 1, 13 carotid axis (common or internal carotid artery) pseudoaneurysms and one rupture; group 2, six patients with no identifiable source of bleeding on angiography but with a threatened carotid axis on computed tomography (CT). In all patients, a polytetrafluoroethylene-covered nitinol stent graft (Fluency; Bard/Angiomed GmbH & Co, Karlsruhe, Germany) was successfully placed. All of the stents were patent at the end of the procedure. Immediate hemostasis was achieved in the six hemorrhagic cases. Immediate transient ischemic attacks were observed in two patients, and carotid sinus syndrome was observed in one patient. Post-treatment bleeding was observed in five patients in group 2 and no patients in group 1. Survival without bleeding was 251 days in group 1 and 35 days in group 2. During follow-up, three asymptomatic stent thromboses occurred at a mean of 58 days.

CONCLUSIONS

Covered stent placement is highly feasible and proved effective without major complications in CBS due to carotid axis bleeding.

Neck neoplastic conditions in the emergency setting: role of multidetector computed tomography

Emergent conditions resulting from head and neck neoplasms and their treatment include acute airway obstruction, hemorrhage, spinal cord compression, bilateral vocal cord paralysis, and septic thrombophlebitis. These conditions require accurate diagnosis and rapid intervention to avoid severe permanent damage or death. Successful treatment requires a coordinated response by emergency medicine physicians, otolaryngologists, vascular surgeons, and radiologists. We review these head and neck oncological conditions, which present emergently, with a focus on radiological evaluation and interpretation.