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Moreno-Roco J, del Valle L, Jiménez D, Acosta I, Castillo JL, Dharmadasa T, Kiernan MC, Matamala JM. Diagnostic utility of transcranial magnetic stimulation for neurodegenerative disease: a critical review. Dement Neuropsychol 2024; 17:e20230048. [PMID: 38189033 PMCID: PMC10768644 DOI: 10.1590/1980-5764-dn-2023-0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases pose significant challenges due to their impact on brain structure, function, and cognition. As life expectancy rises, the prevalence of these disorders is rapidly increasing, resulting in substantial personal, familial, and societal burdens. Efforts have been made to optimize the diagnostic and therapeutic processes, primarily focusing on clinical, cognitive, and imaging characterization. However, the emergence of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, specifically transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), offers unique functional insights and diagnostic potential. TMS allows direct evaluation of brain function, providing valuable information inaccessible through other methods. This review aims to summarize the current and potential diagnostic utility of TMS in investigating neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting its relevance to the field of cognitive neuroscience. The findings presented herein contribute to the growing body of research focused on improving our understanding and management of these debilitating conditions, particularly in regions with limited resources and a pressing need for innovative approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Moreno-Roco
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Clínica Avanzado (CICA) Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lucía del Valle
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Clínica Avanzado (CICA) Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Jiménez
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Clínica Avanzado (CICA) Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Hospital del Salvador, Servicio de Neurología, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ignacio Acosta
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Clínica Avanzado (CICA) Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Hospital del Salvador, Servicio de Neurología, Santiago, Chile
| | - José Luis Castillo
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
| | - Thanuja Dharmadasa
- University of Melbourne, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Department of Neurology, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matthew C. Kiernan
- University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, Australia
- Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Department of Neurology, Sydney, AustraliaArgento
| | - José Manuel Matamala
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Laboratorio de Neurología y Neurofisiología Traslacional, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Clínica Avanzado (CICA) Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Neurológicas Oriente, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Neurociencias, Santiago, Chile
- Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Neurociencia Biomédica (BNI), Santiago, Chile
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2
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Stam CJ, de Haan W. Network Hyperexcitability in Early-Stage Alzheimer's Disease: Evaluation of Functional Connectivity Biomarkers in a Computational Disease Model. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 99:1333-1348. [PMID: 38759000 PMCID: PMC11191539 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Background There is increasing evidence from animal and clinical studies that network hyperexcitability (NH) may be an important pathophysiological process and potential target for treatment in early Alzheimer's disease (AD). Measures of functional connectivity (FC) have been proposed as promising biomarkers for NH, but it is unknown which measure has the highest sensitivity for early-stage changes in the excitation/inhibition balance. Objective We aim to test the performance of different FC measures in detecting NH at the earliest stage using a computational approach. Methods We use a whole brain computational model of activity dependent degeneration to simulate progressive AD pathology and NH. We investigate if and at what stage four measures of FC (amplitude envelope correlation corrected [AECc], phase lag index [PLI], joint permutation entropy [JPE] and a new measure: phase lag time [PLT]) can detect early-stage AD pathophysiology. Results The activity dependent degeneration model replicates spectral changes in line with clinical data and demonstrates increasing NH. Compared to relative theta power as a gold standard the AECc and PLI are shown to be less sensitive in detecting early-stage NH and AD-related neurophysiological abnormalities, while the JPE and the PLT show more sensitivity with excellent test characteristics. Conclusions Novel FC measures, which are better in detecting rapid fluctuations in neural activity and connectivity, may be superior to well-known measures such as the AECc and PLI in detecting early phase neurophysiological abnormalities and in particular NH in AD. These markers could improve early diagnosis and treatment target identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis Jan Stam
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Neurophysiology and MEG Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Center (Amsterdam UMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Willem de Haan
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Neurophysiology and MEG Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Center (Amsterdam UMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Center (Amsterdam UMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Samudra N, Ranasinghe K, Kirsch H, Rankin K, Miller B. Etiology and Clinical Significance of Network Hyperexcitability in Alzheimer's Disease: Unanswered Questions and Next Steps. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 92:13-27. [PMID: 36710680 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cortical network hyperexcitability related to synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a potential target for therapeutic intervention. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the prevalence of silent seizures and interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs, or seizure tendency), with both entities collectively termed "subclinical epileptiform activity" (SEA), on neurophysiologic studies in AD patients. SEA has been demonstrated to be common in AD, with prevalence estimates ranging between 22-54%. Converging lines of basic and clinical evidence imply that modifying a hyperexcitable state results in an improvement in cognition. In particular, though these results require further confirmation, post-hoc findings from a recent phase II clinical trial suggest a therapeutic effect with levetiracetam administration in patients with AD and IEDs. Here, we review key unanswered questions as well as potential clinical trial avenues. Specifically, we discuss postulated mechanisms and treatment of hyperexcitability in patients with AD, which are of interest in designing future disease-modifying therapies. Criteria to prompt screening and optimal screening methodology for hyperexcitability have yet to be defined, as does timing and personalization of therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niyatee Samudra
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kamalini Ranasinghe
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Heidi Kirsch
- University of California, San Francisco Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Katherine Rankin
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce Miller
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Redondo-Camós M, Cattaneo G, Alviarez-Schulze V, Delgado-Gallén S, España-Irla G, Solana-Sanchez J, Perellón-Alfonso R, Albu S, Tormos JM, Pascual-Leone A, Bartres-Faz D. Long-interval intracortical inhibition in primary motor cortex related to working memory in middle-aged adults. Front Psychol 2022; 13:998062. [PMID: 36248602 PMCID: PMC9559215 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Excitability of the primary motor cortex measured with TMS has been associated with cognitive dysfunctions in patient populations. However, only a few studies have explored this relationship in healthy adults, and even fewer have considered the role of biological sex. Methods Ninety-seven healthy middle-aged adults (53 male) completed a TMS protocol and a neuropsychological assessment. Resting Motor Threshold (RMT) and Long-Interval Intracortical Inhibition (LICI) were assessed in the left motor cortex and related to attention, episodic memory, working memory, reasoning, and global cognition composite scores to evaluate the relationship between cortical excitability and cognitive functioning. Results In the whole sample, there was a significant association between LICI and cognition; specifically, higher motor inhibition was related to better working memory performance. When the sample was broken down by biological sex, LICI was only associated with working memory, reasoning, and global cognition in men. No associations were found between RMT and cognitive functions. Conclusion Greater intracortical inhibition, measured by LICI, could be a possible marker of working memory in healthy middle-aged adults, and biological sex plays a critical role in this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Redondo-Camós
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gabriele Cattaneo
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Vanessa Alviarez-Schulze
- Departamento de Ciencias del Comportamiento, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Metropolitana, Caracas, Venezuela
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, i Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Selma Delgado-Gallén
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Goretti España-Irla
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Solana-Sanchez
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ruben Perellón-Alfonso
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, i Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergiu Albu
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José M. Tormos
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Fundació Institut d’Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research and Deanna and Sidney Wolk Center for Memory Health, Hebrew SeniorLife, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Alvaro Pascual-Leone,
| | - David Bartres-Faz
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, i Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- David Bartres-Faz,
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Electroencephalography Findings in Older Adults Undergoing Geriatric Treatment: A Surrogate for the Outcome? Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12070839. [PMID: 35884646 PMCID: PMC9312893 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12070839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Comprehensive geriatric care (CGC) is a multidisciplinary approach developed to meet the needs of older patients. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides valuable information for monitoring the cerebral function. As a surrogate, EEG findings may help to estimate the course of diseases as well as the treatment outcomes. Objectives: Therefore, the aim of the present study is to investigate EEG findings in older patients receiving CGC. Methods: Patients with an initial EEG in a geriatric unit between May 2019 and April 2020 and treated using the CGC approach were analyzed. EEG abnormalities were defined as generalized (diffuse) background slowing and/or intermittent/persistent focal slowing and/or epileptiform discharges. Assessment results for the Barthel index (BI), Tinetti Balance and Gait test (TBGT), and Timed Up and Go test (TUG) were analyzed in relation to the presence of EEG abnormalities. Results: The study included 398 patients (mean age: 83.0 ± 6.57 years, 69.3% were female). Abnormal EEG patterns were found in 94 (23.6%) patients. Patients with EEG abnormalities had a mean age of 83.4 years versus a mean of 82.8 years in those without (p = 0.451). Based on all calculated scores, the majority of the patients improved after CGC, with a tendency to higher-grade improvements in those without EEG abnormalities (BI: 86.2% vs. 75.5%, p = 0.024; TUG: 53.3% vs. 31.9%, p < 0.001); for TBGT, only a gradual difference was detected (TBGT: 79.9% vs. 71.3%, p = 0.088). The presence of EEG abnormalities was associated with the parameters dementia (36.2% vs. 22.4%, p = 0.010), known epilepsy/seizure (19.1% vs. 5.9%, p < 0.001), structural brain lesion (47.9% vs. 19.7%, p < 0.001), and delirium (9.6% vs. 3.6%, p = 0.030) during hospitalization. Conclusions: We found EEG abnormalities in almost a quarter of the patients treated in the geriatric unit. In older patients, the presence of EEG abnormalities is associated with lower improvements after CGC.
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6
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The Lateralization of Resting Motor Threshold to Predict Medication-Mediated Improvement in Parkinson’s Disease. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12070842. [PMID: 35884651 PMCID: PMC9313197 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12070842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical stimulation patterns in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) are asymmetric and get altered over time. This study examined cortical neurophysiological markers for PD and identified neurophysiological markers for lateralization in PD. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to study corticospinal and intracortical excitability in 21 patients with idiopathic PD. We used the Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale for examination during on and off periods and evaluated inhibitory and facilitatory process markers using TMS, including resting motor thresholds (RMT), active motor thresholds, and motor evoked potential amplitude. The RMT in the more affected cortex was significantly shorter than in the less affected cortex, and was strongly correlated with improved motor function following medication. Patients in the tremor group exhibited significantly lower RMT compared to those in the akinetic-rigid group. Cortical electrophysiological laterality observed in patients with PD may be a useful marker for guiding treatment and identifying underlying compensatory mechanisms.
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7
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Babiloni C. The Dark Side of Alzheimer's Disease: Neglected Physiological Biomarkers of Brain Hyperexcitability and Abnormal Consciousness Level. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 88:801-807. [PMID: 35754282 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Babiloni
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "Vittorio Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Hospital San Raffaele Cassino, Cassino (FR), Italy
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8
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Redondo-Camós M, Cattaneo G, Perellón-Alfonso R, Alviarez-Schulze V, Morris TP, Solana-Sanchez J, España-Irla G, Delgado-Gallén S, Pachón-García C, Albu S, Zetterberg H, Tormos JM, Pascual-Leone A, Bartres-Faz D. Local Prefrontal Cortex TMS-Induced Reactivity Is Related to Working Memory and Reasoning in Middle-Aged Adults. Front Psychol 2022; 13:813444. [PMID: 35222201 PMCID: PMC8866698 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in cognition, particularly in executive functions. Cortical reactivity measured with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation combined with Electroencephalography (TMS-EEG) is altered in pathological conditions, and it may also be a marker of cognitive status in middle-aged adults. In this study, we investigated the associations between cognitive measures and TMS evoked EEG reactivity and explored whether the effects of this relationship were related to neurofilament light chain levels (NfL), a marker of neuroaxonal damage. Methods Fifty two healthy middle-aged adults (41–65 years) from the Barcelona Brain Health Initiative cohort underwent TMS-EEG, a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment, and a blood test for NfL levels. Global and Local Mean-Field Power (GMFP/LMFP), two measures of cortical reactivity, were quantified after left prefrontal cortex (L-PFC) stimulation, and cognition was set as the outcome of the regression analysis. The left inferior parietal lobe (L-IPL) was used as a control stimulation condition. Results Local reactivity was significantly associated with working memory and reasoning only after L-PFC stimulation. No associations were found between NfL and cognition. These specific associations were independent of the status of neuroaxonal damage indexed by the NfL biomarker and remained after adjusting for age, biological sex, and education. Conclusion Our results demonstrate that TMS evoked EEG reactivity at the L-PFC, but not the L-IPL, is related to the cognitive status of middle-aged individuals and independent of NfL levels, and may become a valuable biomarker of frontal lobe-associated cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Redondo-Camós
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gabriele Cattaneo
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ruben Perellón-Alfonso
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, i Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Vanessa Alviarez-Schulze
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain.,Departamento de Ciencias del Comportamiento, Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Metropolitana, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Timothy P Morris
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Health, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Javier Solana-Sanchez
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Goretti España-Irla
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Selma Delgado-Gallén
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Catherine Pachón-García
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergiu Albu
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden.,Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom.,UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong, China
| | - Josep M Tormos
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research and Deanna and Sidney Wolk Center for Memory Health, Hebrew SeniorLife, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - David Bartres-Faz
- Institut Guttmann, Institut Universitari de Neurorehabilitació adscrit a la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Medicina, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, i Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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