Intracellular Acidification Suppresses Synaptic Vesicle Mobilization in the Motor Nerve Terminals

Oxysterols in Central and Peripheral Synaptic Communication

Cholesterol is a key molecule for synaptic transmission, and both central and peripheral synapses are cholesterol rich. During intense neuronal activity, a substantial portion of synaptic cholesterol can be oxidized by either enzymatic or non-enzymatic pathways to form oxysterols, which in turn modulate the activities of neurotransmitter receptors (e.g., NMDA and adrenergic receptors), signaling molecules (nitric oxide synthases, protein kinase C, liver X receptors), and synaptic vesicle cycling involved in neurotransmitters release. 24-Hydroxycholesterol, produced by neurons in the brain, could directly affect neighboring synapses and change neurotransmission. 27-Hydroxycholesterol, which can cross the blood-brain barrier, can alter both synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Increased generation of 25-hydroxycholesterol by activated microglia and macrophages could link inflammatory processes to learning and neuronal regulation. Amyloids and oxidative stress can lead to an increase in the levels of ring-oxidized sterols and some of these oxysterols (4-cholesten-3-one, 5α-cholestan-3-one, 7β-hydroxycholesterol, 7-ketocholesterol) have a high potency to disturb or modulate neurotransmission at both the presynaptic and postsynaptic levels. Overall, oxysterols could be used as "molecular prototypes" for therapeutic approaches. Analogs of 24-hydroxycholesterol (SGE-301, SGE-550, SAGE718) can be used for correction of NMDA receptor hypofunction-related states, whereas inhibitors of cholesterol 24-hydroxylase, cholestane-3β,5α,6β-triol, and cholest-4-en-3-one oxime (olesoxime) can be utilized as potential anti-epileptic drugs and (or) protectors from excitotoxicity.

Immune-related oxysterol modulates neuromuscular transmission via non-genomic liver X receptor-dependent mechanism

Inflammatory reactions induce changes in the neuromuscular system. The mechanisms underlying this link are unclear. Besides cytokines and reactive oxygen species (ROS), production of an antiviral oxysterol 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HC) by immune cells is quickly increased in response to inflammation. Hypothetically, 25HC could contribute to regulation of neuromuscular activity as well as redox status. We found that 25HC (0.01-10 μM) can bidirectionally modulate neurotransmission in mice diaphragm, the main respiratory muscle. Low concentrations (≤0.1 μM) of 25HC reduced involvement of synaptic vesicles (SVs) into exocytosis during 20-Hz activity, whereas higher inflammatory-related concentrations (≥1 μM) had a profound potentiating effect on SV mobilization. The latter stimulatory action of 25HC was accompanied by increase in Ca²⁺ release from intracellular stores via IP₃ receptors. Both increase in SV mobilization and [Ca²⁺]_in were suppressed by a specific antagonist of liver X receptors (LXRs). These receptors formed clusters within the synaptic membranes in a lipid raft-dependent manner. Either raft disruption or intracellular Ca²⁺ chelation prevented 25HC-mediated acceleration of the exocytotic rate. The same action had inhibition of estrogen receptor α, Gi-protein, Gβγ, phospholipase C and protein kinase C. Additionally, 1 μM 25HC upregulated ROS production in a Ca²⁺-dependent way and an antioxidant partially decreased the exocytosis-promoting effect of 25HC. Thus, 25HC has prooxidant properties and it is a potent regulator of SV mobilization via activation of lipid raft-associated LXRs which can trigger signaling via estrogen receptor α - Gi-protein - Gβγ - phospholipase C - Ca²⁺ - protein kinase C pathway. 25HC-mediated increase in ROS may modulate this signaling.