Therapeutic lumbar facet joint nerve blocks in the treatment of chronic low back pain: cost utility analysis based on a randomized controlled trial

Radiofrequency treatments for lumbar facet joint syndrome: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Lumbar facet joint syndrome (FJS) is a common cause of chronic low back pain (LBP). Radiofrequency treatments are commonly used to treat chronic LBP-related FJS that is refractory to conservative treatment, although evidence supporting this treatment is controversial.

OBJECTIVE

We explored the therapeutic effects of radiofrequency on FJS using a network meta-analysis (NMA).

EVIDENCE REVIEW

A comprehensive systematic search of multiple databases was conducted to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared radiofrequency with other treatments (sham procedures, facet joint corticosteroid injection, and conservative treatment) for FJS. We searched PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Database, and handsearching. The primary outcomes were pain score and Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). Statistical analysis included conventional pairwise meta-analysis and NMA using the frequentist method.

FINDINGS

The treatments were ranked using surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) values. The search yielded 25 RCTs (1969 patients) and a mixed quality regarding the risk of bias, with most studies exhibiting a low risk of bias for most domains. Endoscopic neurotomy consistently ranked highest in terms of pain reduction and ODI score improvement at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months. At 1 and 6 months, endoscopic neurotomy had the highest SUCRA value for pain reduction (0.833 and 0.860, respectively), followed by medial branch thermal radiofrequency.

CONCLUSIONS

This NMA demonstrates that endoscopic neurotomy is the most effective treatment for lumbar FJS, providing superior and sustained pain relief and functional improvement compared with other treatments. Further, high-quality RCTs are needed to confirm these findings and address the existing limitations.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42024524657.

Surgical versus nonsurgical management of lumbar degenerative spondylolisthesis based on spinal canal cross-sectional area

Disability and pain associated with lumbar degenerative spondylolisthesis (LDS) result in a significant burden on both the healthcare costs and patients' quality of life. Currently, there exists controversy regarding employment of either nonsurgical management (NSM) or surgical management (SM) in a clinical setting. Spinal canal cross-sectional area (SCA) has been an important morphological parameter for the analysis of LDS. However, there is lack of research about the comparative value of NSM and SM according to SCA. Moreover, previous research have not yet evaluated the clinical most suitable cutoff values of SCA. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effective of NSM and SM for LDS using SCA as an objective morphological parameter. The axial T2 magnetic resonance imaging images were obtained from each patient. We collected SCA samples from 149 patients with LDS. 72 patients underwent SM and the rest did NSM. We measured SCA at the L4/5 LDS on magnetic resonance imaging using a picture archiving and communications system. We measured SCA at the intervertebral disk posterior border, turning down to reach the facet joint side on the opposite edge at the L4/5 level. The average SCA value was 114.34 ± 48.11 mm2 in the NSM group and 69.88 ± 27.87 mm2 in the SM group. Therefore, the SM group had considerably lower SCA (P < .001). In view of the effectiveness of SCA as a prediction factor of surgical option, Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis show the optimal cutoff value for SCA as 83.21 mm2, with 70.8% sensitivity, 71.4% specificity, and an area under the curve of 0.80 (95% CI, 0.73-0.87). The narrower the SCA, the higher the probability of SM. Thus, it is proposed that to evaluate surgical decision making, the pain physician should carefully inspect the SCA.

Association between socioeconomic status and treatment in patients with low back or neck pain: a population-based cross-sectional study in South Korea

INTRODUCTION

Socioeconomic status affects the treatment of patients with low back pain and/or neck pain. We examined the relationship between socioeconomic status (occupation and household income level) and treatments such as chronic opioid use and interventional procedures among these patients.

METHODS

Data from the National Health Insurance Service database in South Korea were used in this population-based cross-sectional study. Approximately 2.5% of adult patients diagnosed with low back pain and/or neck pain between 2010 and 2019 were selected using a stratified random sampling technique and included in the analysis.

RESULTS

We analyzed the data of 5,861,007 patients with low back pain and/or neck pain in total. Among them, 4.9% were chronic opioid users and 17.7% underwent interventional procedures. Healthcare workers and unemployed individuals had 18% lower and 6% higher likelihood of chronic opioid use compared with office workers, respectively. Those with a very low household income had 18% higher likelihood of chronic opioid use than those with a poor household income. Other workers and unemployed individuals had 4% and 8% higher likelihood of undergoing interventional procedures than office workers, respectively. Healthcare workers had 5% lower likelihood of undergoing interventional procedures than office workers. Patients with middle, high, and very poor household incomes had a higher likelihood of undergoing interventional procedures, while those in the very high household income group had a lower likelihood of undergoing interventional procedures than those with poor household incomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic status factors are associated with treatment in patients with low back pain and/or neck pain.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Utilization Patterns of Facet Joint Interventions in Managing Spinal Pain in a Medicare Population

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in major disruptions in all aspects of human life including a decline of medical services utilized during 2020. An analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic showed an 18.7% reduction in utilization patterns of interventional techniques in managing chronic pain in the Medicare population from 2019 to 2020. However, specific changes in utilization patterns of facet joint interventions have not been studied. Thus, we sought to assess the utilization patterns including an update of facet joint interventions from 2018 to 2020, with analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic in managing chronic spinal pain utilizing facet joint interventions in the fee-for-service Medicare population of the United States.

METHODS

The present investigation was designed to assess utilization patterns and variables of facet joint interventions, in managing chronic spinal pain from 2010 to 2020 in the fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare population in the United States (US), and how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted these utilization patterns. Data for the analysis were obtained from the master database from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) physician/supplier procedure summary from 2000 to 2020.

RESULTS

Results of this analysis showed significant impact of COVID-19 with overall decrease of 18.5% of all facet joint interventions per 100,000 Medicare population compared to 20.2 and 20.5% decrease for lumbar and cervical facet joint injections, 15 and 13.1% decrease per 100,000 Medicare population of lumbosacral and cervicothoracic facet joint neurolysis procedures. The results are significant in that comparative analysis from 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2019 showing an annual increase of 14.4 vs. 2.2%, illustrating a decelerating pattern. There were also significant growth patterns noted with decreases in facet joint injections and nerve blocks compared to facet joint neurolytic procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis shows a significant effect of COVID-19 producing an overall decrease in utilization of facet joint interventions relative to pre-COVID data. Further, the analysis demonstrates continued deceleration of utilization patterns of facet joint interventions compared to the periods of 2000-2010 and 2010-2019.

Lessons for Better Pain Management in the Future: Learning from the Past

The treatment of noncancer pain in the United States and globally is met with significant challenges, resulting in profound physical, emotional, and societal costs. Based on this need, numerous modalities have been proposed to manage chronic pain, including opioid and nonopioid interventions as well as surgical approaches. Thus, the future of pain management continues to be mired in evolving concepts and constant debates. Consequently, it is crucial to understand the past as we move towards the future. The evolution of lessons for better pain management at present and for the future starting from the 1990s to the present date are reviewed and emphasized with a focus on learning from the past for the future. This review summarizes the evolution of multiple modalities of treatments, including multidisciplinary programs, multimodal therapy, interventional techniques, opioid therapy, other conservative modalities, and surgical interventions. This review emphasizes the individual, patient-centered development of an effective pain treatment plan after proper evaluation to establish a diagnosis. It includes measurable outcomes that focus on improvements in the quality of life and activities of daily living, as well as improvement in pain and function and, most importantly, return to productive citizenship. It is crucial that the knowledge of best practices be advanced, along with emphasis on lessons learned in the past to provide best practices for better pain management.

A Comprehensive Review of the Treatment and Management of Myofascial Pain Syndrome

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) is a musculoskeletal pain condition that stems from localized, taut regions of skeletal muscle and fascia, termed trigger points. The purpose of this comprehensive review is to provide updated information on prevalence, pathophysiology, and treatment modalities with a focus on interventional modalities in managing MPS.

RECENT FINDINGS

Though MPS can present acutely, it frequently presents as a chronic condition, affecting up to 85% of adults during their lifetime. MPS is an often-overlooked component of pain with overarching effects on society, including patient quality of life, physical and social functioning, emotional well-being, energy, and costs on health care. The prevalence of MPS is generally increased among patients with other chronic pain disorders and has been associated with various other conditions such as bladder pain syndrome, endometriosis, and anxiety. MPS is poorly understood and remains a challenging condition to treat. Non-pharmacologic treatment modalities such as acupuncture, massage, transcutaneous electrical stimulation, and interferential current therapy may offer relief to some patients with MPS. Additional studies are warranted to get a better understanding of managing myofascial pain.

A Comprehensive Review of the Celiac Plexus Block for the Management of Chronic Abdominal Pain

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic abdominal pain (CAP) is a significant health problem that can dramatically affect quality of life and survival. Pancreatic cancer is recognized as one of the most painful malignancies with 70-80% suffering from substantial pain, often unresponsive to typical medical management. Celiac plexus neurolysis and celiac plexus block (CPB) can be performed to mitigate pain through direct destruction or blockade of visceral afferent nerves. The objective of this manuscript is to provide a comprehensive review of the CPB as it pertains to CAP with a focus on the associated anatomy, indications, techniques, neurolysis/blocking agents, and complications observed in patients who undergo CPB for the treatment of CAP.

RECENT FINDINGS

The CAP is difficult to manage due to lack of precision in diagnosis and limited evidence from available treatments. CAP can arise from both benign and malignant causes. Treatment options include pharmacologic, interventional, and biopsychosocial treatments. Opioid therapy is typically utilized for the treatment of CAP; however, opioid therapy is associated with multiple complications. CPB has successfully been used to treat a variety of conditions resulting in CAP. The majority of the literature specifically related to CPB is surrounding chronic pain associated with pancreatic cancer. The literature shows emerging evidence in managing CAP with CPB, specifically in pancreatic cancer. This review provides multiple aspects of CAP and CPB, including anatomy, medical necessity, indications, technical considerations, available evidence, and finally complications related to the management.

The Role of the Cannabinoid System in Pain Control: Basic and Clinical Implications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive update of the different known components of the endogenous cannabinoid system and the mechanisms of action, as it applies to analgesia.

RECENT FINDINGS

Following the discovery of the endogenous cannabinoid system in the early 1990s and the subsequent characterization of the cannabinoid receptor, there has been a renewed interest in cannabinoid research. Recent work has demonstrated its efficacy as a pharmacologic agent. There is limited evidence in the literature about the understanding of the endocannabinoid system and its role in the treatment and management of acute and chronic pain. Further work may elucidate additional roles for the endocannabinoid system within our nervous system and, moreover, additional subtypes of cannabinoid receptors have yet to be discovered. Cannabinoid compounds mediate their biological effects via binding and subsequent activation of cannabinoid receptors. These receptors are located throughout the body and make up the endocannabinoid system. These receptors are best understood and have been cloned, type 1 (CB₁) and type 2 (CB₂) [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)] [ (1, 2)]. The CB₂ receptor is located primarily in the immune system. CB₁ receptors are primarily located in the nervous system with the highest concentrations in the brain and lower concentrations in the spine and peripheral nervous tissues. Cannabinoids may be promising treatments for neuropathic pain with limited evidence, whereas, the evidence for other uses is insufficient.

Is Percutaneous Adhesiolysis Effective in Managing Chronic Low Back and Lower Extremity Pain in Post-surgery Syndrome: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The growing prevalence of spinal pain in the USA continues to produce substantial economic impact and strain on health-related quality of life. Percutaneous adhesiolysis is utilized for recalcitrant, resistant conditions involving spinal pain when epidural injections have failed to provide adequate improvement, especially low back and lower extremity pain, specifically in post-lumbar surgery syndrome. Despite multiple publications and systematic reviews, the debate continues in reference to effectiveness, safety, appropriate utilization, and medical necessity of percutaneous adhesiolysis in chronic pain. This systematic review, therefore, was undertaken to evaluate and to update effectiveness of percutaneous adhesiolysis to treat chronic refractory low back and lower extremity pain, post-surgical patients of the lumbar spine.

RECENT FINDINGS

From 2009 to 2016, there was a decline of 53.2% utilization of percutaneous adhesiolysis with an annual decline of 10.3% per 100,000 fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare population. Multiple insurers, including Medicare, with Medicare area contractors of Noridian and Palmetto have issued noncoverage policies for percutaneous adhesiolysis resulting in these steep declines and continued noncoverage by Medicare Advantage plans, Managed Care plans of Medicaid, and other insurers. Since 2005, 4 systematic reviews of percutaneous adhesiolysis were published with 3 of them showing proper methodology and appropriate results with effectiveness of adhesiolysis, whereas one poorly performed systematic review showed negative results. In addition, there were only 4 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to be included in the previous systematic reviews of post-surgery syndrome, whereas now, the RCTs and other studies have increased. This systematic review shows level I or strong evidence for the effectiveness of percutaneous adhesiolysis in managing chronic low back and lower extremity pain related to post-lumbar surgery syndrome.

Evaluation of Cost-Utility of Thoracic Interlaminar Epidural Injections

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic thoracic pain, even though not as prevalent as low back and neck pain, appears in approximately 30% of the general population. The severity of thoracic pain and degree of disability seems to be similar to other painful conditions. Despite this severity, interventions in managing chronic thoracic pain are less frequent, and there is a paucity of literature regarding epidural injections and facet joint interventions.

RECENT FINDINGS

As with lumbar and cervical spine, a multitude of interventions are offered in managing chronic thoracic pain, including interventional techniques with epidural injections and facet joint interventions. A single randomized controlled trial (RCT) has been published with a 2-year follow-up of clinical effectiveness of the results. However, there have not been any cost-utility analysis studies pertaining to either epidural injections or facet joint interventions in thoracic pain. Based on the results of the RCT, a cost-utility analysis of thoracic interlaminar epidural injections was undertaken. Evaluation of the cost-utility analysis of thoracic interlaminar epidural injections with or without steroids in managing thoracic disc herniation, thoracic spinal stenosis, and thoracic discogenic or axial pain was assessed in 110 patients with a 2-year follow-up. Direct payment data from 2018 was utilized for procedural costs and indirect costs. Costs, including drug costs, were determined by multiplication of direct procedural payment data by a factor of 1.67 or addition of 40% of cost to accommodate for indirect payments and arrive at overall costs. Cost-utility analysis showed direct procedural cost of USD $1943.19, whereas total estimated costs year per QALY were USD $3245.12.

Usefulness of the Inferior Articular Process's Cross-Sectional Area as a Morphological Parameter for Predicting Central Lumbar Spinal Stenosis

Hypertrophy of facet joints is associated with a high risk of central lumbar spinal stenosis (CLSS). However, no research has reported the effect of inferior articular process hypertrophy in CLSS. We hypothesize that the inferior articular process’s cross-sectional area (IAPCSA) is larger in patients with CLSS compared to those without CLSS. Data on IAPCSA were obtained from 116 patients with CLSS. A total of 102 control subjects underwent lumbar spine magnetic resonance imaging (LS-MRI) as part of a routine medical examination. Axial T1-weighted images were obtained from the two groups. Using an imaging analysis system, we investigated the cross-sectional area of the inferior articular process. The average IAPCSA was 70.97 ± 13.02 mm² in control subjects and 88.77 ± 18.52 mm² in patients with CLSS. CLSS subjects had significantly greater levels of IAPCSA (p < 0.001) than controls. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted to determine the validity of IAPCSA as a predictor of CLSS. The most suitable cut-off point of IAPCSA for predicting CLSS was 75.88 mm², with a sensitivity of 71.6%, a specificity of 68.6%, and an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.78 (95% CI: 0.72–0.84). Greater IAPCSA levels were associated with a higher incidence of CLSS. These results demonstrate that IAPCSA is a useful morphological predictor in the evaluation of CLSS.

Comparative Analysis of Utilization of Epidural Procedures in Managing Chronic Pain in the Medicare Population: Pre and Post Affordable Care Act

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study of utilization patterns of epidural injections.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess patterns of utilization and variables of in chronic spinal pain in the fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare population, with a comparative analysis of pre- and post-Affordable Care Act (ACA) data from 2000 to 2009 and 2009 to 2016.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Over the years, utilization of interventional pain management techniques, specifically epidural injections have increased creating concern over costs and public health policy.

METHODS

The master data from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) physician/supplier procedure summary from 2000 to 2016 was utilized to assess utilization patterns. The descriptive analysis of the database analysis was performed using guidance from the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE). Multiple variables were analyzed based on the procedures, specialties, and geography.

RESULTS

Caudal and lumbar interlaminar epidural injections decreased 25% from 2009 to 2016 with an annual decrease of 4% in contrast to lumbosacral transforaminal epidural injection episodes, increasing at an annual rate of 0.3%. In contrast, lumbar interlaminar epidural injections increased 2.4% annually, while transforaminal episodes increased 23% from 2000 to 2009. The ratio of interlaminar epidural injections to transforaminal epidural injection episodes has changed from 7 in 2000 to 1 in 2016, whereas ratio of services changed from 5 to 0.7. From 2009 to 2016, cervical/thoracic interlaminar epidural injections episodes increased at an annual rate of 0.5%, with a decrease of 2.3% for transforaminal epidural injections.

CONCLUSION

Comparative analysis of the utilization of epidural injections from 2000 to 2009 and 2009 to 2016 showed vast differences with overall significant decreases in utilization, specifically for lumbar interlaminar and caudal epidural injections, with a continued, though greatly slowed increase of lumbosacral transforaminal epidural injections.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3.

Superior articular process cross-sectional area is a new sensitive parameter for the diagnosis of lumbar central canal spinal stenosis

Purpose

Previous studies reported that hypertrophied superior articular process (SAP) was associated with an increased risk of lumbar foraminal stenosis. However, no study investigated the effect of SAP hypertrophy in lumbar central canal spinal stenosis (LCCSS). We hypothesized that the SAP cross-sectional area (SAPCSA) is the main morphologic feature in the diagnosis of LCCSS.

Patients and methods

Data regarding the SAPCSA were collected from 109 patients with LCCSS. All patients were enrolled after the LCCSS diagnosis was confirmed by an experienced, board-certified neuroradiologist. All patients had clinical manifestations compatible with LCCSS. A total of 120 subjects in the control group underwent lumbar spine MRI as part of non-symptomatic medical examination. T2-weighted axial images were obtained from the 2 groups. Using a picture archiving and communications system, we analyzed the CSA of the bone margin of SAP at the level of L4–L5 facet joint on MRI.

Results

The average SAPCSA was 96.63±13.37 mm² in the control group, and 123.59±14.18 mm² in the LCCSS. The LCCSS group showed significantly higher levels of the SAPCSA (P<0.001) compared with the control one. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to determine the validity of the SAPCSA as a predictor of LCCSS. In the LCCSS group, the optimal cut-off-point was 110.71 mm², with 83.5% sensitivity, 83.3% specificity, and area under the curve of 0.92 (95% CI: 0.88–0.95).

Conclusion

Higher SAPCSA values were associated with a higher possibility of LCCSS. These results are important in the evaluation of patients with LCCSS.

Comparison of effectiveness for fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections with or without steroid in cervical post-surgery syndrome

Background

Neck and back pain are leading sources of disability placing substantial burden on health care systems. Surgical interventions in managing chronic neck pain secondary to various disorders continue to increase. Even though surgical interventions are effective, a significant proportion of patients continue to have symptomatology and develop cervical post-surgery syndrome. This study was performed to know the effectiveness of cervical interlaminar epidural injections with or without steroids.

Methods

The effectiveness of fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections in post-surgery syndrome was evaluated in a randomized, active controlled trial. The study population included 116 patients assigned to 2 groups. Group 1 received cervical interlaminar epidural injections with local anesthetic alone and Group 2 received injection with local anesthetic and steroids. The main outcomes were defined as significant improvement (greater than 50%) of pain relief using the numeric rating scale and/or functional status improvement using the Neck Disability Index (NDI).

Results

Both groups had similar results with significant improvement (≥ 50% pain relief and functional status improvement) in 69% of the patients in Group I, whereas, in Group II, 71% of the patients showed significant improvement at the end of 2 years. During a 2-year period, the average number of procedures was 5 to 6, with an average of approximately 12 weeks of significant improvement per procedure.

Conclusions

Fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections administered in cervical post-surgery syndrome using local anesthetic, regardless of the use of steroids, may be effective in approximately 70% of the patients at 2-year follow-up.

Optimal cut-off points of lumbar pedicle thickness as a morphological parameter to predict lumbar spinal stenosis syndrome: a retrospective study

Purpose

Lumbar spinal stenosis syndrome (LSSS) is induced by factors such as ligamentum flavum hypertrophy, facet joint hypertrophy and disc degeneration. However, the role of lumbar pedicle (LP) in LSSS has yet to be evaluated. We devised a new morphological parameter called the lumbar pedicle thickness (LPT) to evaluate the connection between LSSS and the LP. We hypothesized that the LPT is a major morphological parameter in the diagnosis of LSSS.

Patients and methods

The LPT data were collected from 136 patients diagnosed with LSSS. A total of 99 control subjects underwent lumbar spine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as part of a detailed medical assessment. Axial T2-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images were acquired from all the participants. Using our picture archiving and communication system, we analyzed the thickness of the LP at the level of L5 vertebra on MRI.

Results

The average LPT was 9.46±1.81 mm in the control group and 13.26±1.98 mm in the LSSS group. LSSS patients showed a significantly greater LPT (P<0.001) than the control group. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed an optimal cutoff point of 11.33 mm for the LPT, with 83.8% sensitivity, 83.8% specificity and area under the curve of 0.92 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89-0.96).

Conclusion

A higher LPT was associated with a higher possibility of LSSS, suggesting its importance in the evaluation of patients with LSSS.

Chronic low back pain: a mini-review on pharmacological management and pathophysiological insights from clinical and pre-clinical data

Globally, low back pain (LBP) is one of the most common health problems affecting humans. The lifetime prevalence of non-specific LBP is approximately 84%, with the chronic prevalence at about 23%. Chronic LBP in humans is defined as LBP that persists for more than 12 weeks without a significant pain improvement. Although there are numerous evidence-based guidelines on the management of acute LBP, this is not the case for chronic LBP, which is regarded as particularly difficult to treat. Research aimed at discovering new drug treatments for alleviation of chronic mechanical LBP is lacking due to the paucity of knowledge on the pathobiology of this condition, despite its high morbidity in the affected adult population. For a debilitating condition such as chronic LBP, it is necessary to assess the sustained effects of pharmacotherapy of various agents spanning months to years. Although many rodent models of mechanical LBP have been developed to mimic the human condition, some of the major shortcomings of many of these models are (1) the presence of a concurrent neuropathic component that develops secondary to posterior intervertebral disc puncture, (2) severe model phenotype, and/or (3) use of behavioural endpoints that have yet to be validated for pain. Hence, there is a great, unmet need for research aimed at discovering new biological targets in rodent models of chronic mechanical LBP for use in drug discovery programs as a means to potentially produce new highly effective and well-tolerated analgesic agents to improve relief of chronic LBP. On a cautionary note, it must be borne in mind that because humans and rats display orthograde and pronograde postures, respectively, the different mechanical forces on their spines add to the difficulty in translation of promising rodent data to humans.