Association of Microbial Dysbiosis with Gallbladder Diseases Identified by Bile Microbiome Profiling

Seasonal Change in Microbial Diversity: Bile Microbiota and Antibiotics Resistance in Patients with Bilio-Pancreatic Tumors: A Retrospective Monocentric Study (2010-2020)

Background: Bilio-pancreatic tumors are a severe form of cancer with a high rate of associated mortality. These patients showed the presence of bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas spp. in the bile-pancreatic tract. Therefore, efficient antibiotic therapy is essential to reduce bacterial resistance and adverse events in cancer patients. Recent studies on the seasonality of infectious diseases may aid in developing effective preventive measures. This study examines the seasonal impact on the bile microbiota composition and the antibiotic resistance of its microorganisms in patients with hepato-pancreatic-biliary cancer. Methods: We retrospectively evaluated the effect of the seasonally from 149 strains isolated by 90 Italian patients with a positive culture of bile samples collected through endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography between 2010 and 2020. Results: Across all seasons, the most frequently found bacteria were E. coli, Pseudomonas spp., and Enterococcus spp. Regarding antibiotic resistance, bacteria showed the highest resistance to 3GC, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, fosfomycin, and piperacillin-tazobactam in the summer and the lowest resistance in the spring, except for carbapenems and colistin. Conclusions: Antibiotic resistance has negative effects in cancer patients who rely on antibiotics to prevent and treat infections. Knowing whether bacterial and fungal resistance changes with the seasons is key information to define adequate and more effective antibiotic therapy.

Microbiota and Radiotherapy: Unlocking the Potential for Improved Gastrointestinal Cancer Treatment

Radiotherapy (RT) is one of the major cornerstones in managing gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. However, several side effects, such as intestinal inflammation, mucosal injury, and dysbiosis, often compromise this. The gut microbiota increasingly attracts much interest as an essential modulator of RT effects influencing immune responses and tissue repair. Through short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate, representatives of certain bacterial species play a crucial role under normal conditions, keeping the mucosal integrity intact and reducing oxidative stress-mediated damage. Dysbiosis, a state where diminished microbial diversity and increased pathogenic species in the microbiota are seen, amplifies RT-induced toxicity in patients. Clinical investigations highlight that microbiota-targeted interventions, including probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation, hold the means to augment RT efficacy and lessen toxicity. Increased microflora diversity and specific microbial profiles have yielded serious patient improvements. Advanced RT methods use stereotactic body radiotherapy combined with microbiota modulation as a promising technique to shield healthy tissue and maximize immune-mediated antitumor effects. Additionally, there is an implication in tumor behavior regulated by the intratumoral microbiota regarding the response to radiotherapy. Notably, the modulation of gut and tumor microbiota provides an avenue to optimize RT benefits in GI cancers, underscoring the importance of personalized therapy.

Establishment of a chronic biliary disease mouse model with cholecystoduodenal anastomosis for intestinal microbiome preservation

BACKGROUND

Chronic biliary disease, including cholangitis and cholecystitis, is attributed to ascending infection by intestinal bacteria. Development of a mouse model for bile duct inflammation is imperative for the advancement of novel therapeutic approaches. Current models fail to replicate the harmful bacterial influx to the biliary tract observed in humans and spread of inflammation to the liver. Therefore, we aimed to establish an animal model of biliary disease that faithfully replicates the mechanisms of human diseases.

AIM

To establish a cholecystoduodenal anastomosis model capable of mimicking the mechanisms of ascending infection and inflammation observed in human biliary diseases.

METHODS

We established a mouse biliary disease model by directly connecting the gallbladder and duodenum, enabling ascending infection into the biliary tract without traversing the sphincter of Oddi.

RESULTS

In the cholecystoduodenal anastomosis mouse model, we observed impaired epithelial structure, wall thickening, and macrophage recruitment in the gallbladder. Despite the absence of postoperative antibiotics, we detected no changes in serum proinflammatory cytokine levels, indicating no systemic inflammation. Moreover, patency between the gallbladder and duodenum was confirmed via common bile duct ligation. Injection of patient-derived pathogenic bacteria into bile duct-ligated mice led to ascending infection, which significantly increased proinflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in the liver, duodenum, and ileum. These results indicate that our mouse model exhibited a direct connection between the gallbladder and duodenum, leading to ascending infection and closely mimicking the clinical features of biliary diseases observed in humans.

CONCLUSION

The cholecystoduodenal anastomosis mouse model is an effective chronic biliary disease model with significant relevance in the development of microbiome-based therapies for the prevention and treatment of biliary disease.

Metagenomic Analysis of Biliary Microbial Flora in Patients with Gallbladder Cancer or Gallstones-Associated Chronic Cholecystitis

Biliary dysbiosis is associated with gallbladder cancer (GBC). We aimed to look for biliary bacteria specifically detected in GBC patients. We used 16S rRNA-based metagenomic analysis to elucidate biliary microbiota in 30 GBC and 30 gallstones-associated chronic cholecystitis patients. Relative abundance of five genera, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Halomonas, Escherichia and Caulobacter was significantly associated with GBC. Of 15-species, 7 were detected significantly higher in GBC, Streptococcus anginosus, Streptococcus constellatus, Streptococcus intermedius, Actinomyces bowdenii, Actinomyces israelii, Actinomyces gerencseriae, and Escherichia fergusonii were biosafety level-2 infectious bacteria; other 8 species were biosafety level-1 bacteria. These bacterial species may be involved in pathogenesis of GBC.

Characteristics of gallbladder microbiome in healthy dogs and cats, dogs with gallbladder mucocele, and cats with suspected cholangitis/cholangiohepatitis

The aim of this study was to investigate and characterize the microbiome in bile samples obtained from dogs with gallbladder mucocele (6), cats with suspected cholangitis/cholangiohepatitis (4), as well as from healthy dogs (6) and cats (4). Our goal was to compare the microbiome patterns with clinical findings and bacterial culture results in diseases of the gallbladder and to identify a potential microbial biomarker of diseased groups. The microbial taxa composition revealed that Proteobacteria were the most dominant phylum in healthy and diseased individuals in all groups. Individuals from six families including Burkholderiaceae, Phyllobacteriaceae, Bradyrhizobiaceae, Sphingomonadaceae, Moraxellaceae, and Caulobacteraceae, constituted the core microbiome in the gallbladder of healthy dogs. A combination of LEfSe analysis and Taxa2ASV decomposer revealed that Pseudomonaceae and Ruminococcaceae exclusively occurred in the mucocele group. In conclusion, this study determined the core microbiome in the gallbladder of healthy dogs and the possible biomarkers (Pseudomonaceae and Ruminococcaceae) of gallbladder mucocele in dogs.

The footprint of gut microbiota in gallbladder cancer: a mechanistic review

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common malignant tumor of the biliary system with the worst prognosis. Even after radical surgery, the majority of patients with GBC have difficulty achieving a clinical cure. The risk of tumor recurrence remains more than 65%, and the overall 5-year survival rate is less than 5%. The gut microbiota refers to a variety of microorganisms living in the human intestine, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, which profoundly affect the host state of general health, disease and even cancer. Over the past few decades, substantial evidence has supported that gut microbiota plays a critical role in promoting the progression of GBC. In this review, we summarize the functions, molecular mechanisms and recent advances of the intestinal microbiota in GBC. We focus on the driving role of bacteria in pivotal pathways, such as virulence factors, metabolites derived from intestinal bacteria, chronic inflammatory responses and ecological niche remodeling. Additionally, we emphasize the high level of correlation between viruses and fungi, especially EBV and Candida spp., with GBC. In general, this review not only provides a solid theoretical basis for the close relationship between gut microbiota and GBC but also highlights more potential research directions for further research in the future.

Microbial profile in bile from pancreatic and extra-pancreatic biliary tract cancer

BACKGROUND

Dysbiotic biliary bacterial profile is reported in cancer patients and is associated with survival and comorbidities, raising the question of its effect on the influence of anticancer drugs and, recently, the suggestion of perichemotherapy antibiotics in pancreatic cancer patients colonized by the Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated the microbial communities that colonize tumours and which bacteria could aid in diagnosing pancreatic and biliary cancer and managing bile-colonized patients.

METHODS

A retrospective study on positive bile cultures of 145 Italian patients who underwent cholangiopancreatography with PC and EPC cancer hospitalized from January 2006 to December 2020 in a QA-certified academic surgical unit were investigated for aerobic/facultative-anaerobic bacteria and fungal organisms.

RESULTS

We found that among Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas spp were the most frequent in the EPC group, while Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp, and Pseudomonas spp were the most frequent in the PC group. Enterococcus spp was the most frequent Gram-positive bacteria in both groups. Comparing the EPC and PC, we found a significant presence of patients with greater age in the PC compared to the EPC group. Regarding Candida spp, we found no significant but greater rate in the PC group compared to the EPC group (11.7% vs 1.96%). We found that Alcaligenes faecalis was the most frequent bacteria in EPC than the PC group, among Gram-negative bacterial species.

CONCLUSIONS

Age differences in gut microbiota composition may affect biliary habitats in our cancer population, especially in patients with pancreatic cancer. Alcaligenes faecalis isolated in the culture of bile samples could represent potential microbial markers for a restricted follow-up to early diagnosis of extra-pancreatic cancer. Finally, the prevalence of Candida spp in pancreatic cancer seems to trigger new aspects about debate about the role of fungal microbiota into their relationship with pancreatic cancer.

Profiles of biliary microbiota in biliary obstruction patients with Clonorchis sinensis infection

Background

Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) is a epidemiologically significant food-borne parasite, causing several hepatobiliary diseases. Biliary microbiota community structure might be influenced by infection with pathogens. However, the biliary microbiome of biliary obstruction patients infected with C. sinensis is still an unexplored aspect.

Methods

A total of 50 biliary obstruction patients were enrolled, including 24 infected with C. sinensis and 26 non-infected subjects. The bile samples were collected by Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancretography. Biliary microbiota alteration was analyzed through high-throughput 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing.

Results

Our findings revealed that there was significant increase in both richness and diversity, as well as changes in the taxonomic composition of the biliary microbiota of C. sinensis infected patients. At the phylum level, C. sinensis infection induced Proteobacteria increased and Firmicutes reduced. At the genus level, the relative abundance of Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus increased significantly, while Enterococcus decreased prominently in infected groups (P < 0.05). The PICRUSt analysis further showed remarkably different metabolic pathways between the two groups.

Conclusion

C. sinensis infection could modify the biliary microbiota, increasing the abundance and changing the phylogenetic composition of bacterial in biliary obstruction patients. This study may help deepen the understanding of the host-biliary microbiota interplay with C. sinensis infection on the background of biliary obstruction and provide new insights into understanding the pathogenesis of clonorchiasis.

Getting off tract: contributions of intraorgan microbiota to cancer in extraintestinal organs

The gastrointestinal ecosystem has received the most attention when examining the contributions of the human microbiome to health and disease. This concentration of effort is logical due to the overwhelming abundance of microbes in the gut coupled with the relative ease of sampling compared with other organs. However, the intestines are intimately connected to multiple extraintestinal organs, providing an opportunity for homeostatic microbial colonisation and pathogenesis in organs traditionally thought to be sterile or only transiently harbouring microbiota. These habitats are challenging to sample, and their low microbial biomass among large amounts of host tissue can make study challenging. Nevertheless, recent findings have shown that many extraintestinal organs that are intimately linked to the gut harbour stable microbiomes, which are colonised from the gut in selective manners and have highlighted not just the influence of the bacteriome but that of the mycobiome and virome on oncogenesis and health.

Microbiota in cancer: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions

The diverse bacterial populations within the symbiotic microbiota play a pivotal role in both health and disease. Microbiota modulates critical aspects of tumor biology including cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. This regulation occurs through mechanisms like enhancing genomic damage, hindering gene repair, activating aberrant cell signaling pathways, influencing tumor cell metabolism, promoting revascularization, and remodeling the tumor immune microenvironment. These microbiota-mediated effects significantly impact overall survival and the recurrence of tumors after surgery by affecting the efficacy of chemoradiotherapy. Moreover, leveraging the microbiota for the development of biovectors, probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics, in addition to utilizing antibiotics, dietary adjustments, defensins, oncolytic virotherapy, and fecal microbiota transplantation, offers promising alternatives for cancer treatment. Nonetheless, due to the extensive and diverse nature of the microbiota, along with tumor heterogeneity, the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of microbiota in cancer remain a subject of intense debate. In this context, we refocus on various cancers, delving into the molecular signaling pathways associated with the microbiota and its derivatives, the reshaping of the tumor microenvironmental matrix, and the impact on tolerance to tumor treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. This exploration aims to shed light on novel perspectives and potential applications in the field.

Unraveling the intricate relationship: Influence of microbiome on the host immune system in carcinogenesis

BACKGROUND

Cancer is an outcome of various disrupted or dysregulated metabolic processes like apoptosis, growth, and self-cell transformation. Human anatomy harbors trillions of microbes, and these microbes actively influence all kinds of human metabolic activities, including the human immune response. The immune system which inherently acts as a sentinel against microbes, curiously tolerates and even maintains a distinct normal microflora in our body. This emphasizes the evolutionarily significant role of microbiota in shaping our adaptive immune system and even potentiating its function in chronic ailments like cancers. Microbes interact with the host immune cells and play a part in cancer progression or regression by modulating immune cells, producing immunosuppressants, virulence factors, and genotoxins.

RECENT FINDINGS

An expanding plethora of studies suggest and support the evidence of microbiome impacting cancer etiology. Several studies also indicate that the microbiome can supplement various cancer therapies, increasing their efficacy. The present review discusses the relationship between bacterial and viral microbiota with cancer, discussing different carcinogenic mechanisms influenced by prokaryotes with special emphasis on their immunomodulatory axis. It also elucidates the potential of the microbiome in transforming the efficacy of immunotherapeutic treatments.

CONCLUSION

This review offers a thorough overview of the complex interaction between the human immune system and the microbiome and its impact on the development of cancer. The microbiome affects the immune responses as well as progression of tumor transformation, hence microbiome-based therapies can vastly improve the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapies. Individual variations of the microbiome and its dynamic variability in every individual impacts the immune modulation and cancer progression. Therefore, further research is required to understand these underlying processes in detail, so as to design better microbiome-immune system axis in the treatment of cancer.

Interplay between the Human Microbiome and Biliary Tract Cancer: Implications for Pathogenesis and Therapy

Biliary tract cancer, encompassing intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma as well as gallbladder carcinoma, stands as a prevalent malignancy characterized by escalating incidence rates and unfavorable prognoses. The onset of cholangiocarcinoma involves a multitude of risk factors and could potentially be influenced by microbial exposure. The human microbiome, encompassing the entirety of human microbial genetic information, assumes a pivotal role in regulating key aspects such as host digestion, absorption, immune responses, and metabolism. The widespread application of next-generation sequencing technology has notably propelled investigations into the intricate relationship between the microbiome and diseases. An accumulating body of evidence strongly suggests a profound interconnection between biliary tract cancer and the human microbiome. This article critically appraises the existing evidence pertaining to the microbiome milieu within patients afflicted by biliary tract cancer. Furthermore, it delves into potential mechanisms through which dysregulation of the human microbiome could contribute to the advancement of biliary tract cancer. Additionally, the article expounds on its role in the context of chemotherapy and immunotherapy for biliary tract cancer.

Variations of bile bacterial community alongside gallstone disease progression and key taxa involved in poor outcomes after endoscopic surgery

Gallstone disease is a prevalent biliary disease worldwide, and bacteria play vital roles in the disease development and progression, as well as the prognosis after endoscopic surgery. However, there have been limited studies to explore the key taxa involved. In this study, bile samples from healthy controls (HCs, liver donors without hepatobiliary disease) and three diseased groups, namely patients with gallbladder stones (GBS), patients with common bile duct stones (CBDS), and patients with stricture in the common bile duct (SCBD), were collected and analyzed. Bacterial community characterization based on 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing showed that bacterial diversities did not change significantly alongside gallstone disease development and progression. The predominant phyla in each group were Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, and Fusobacteriota, representing over 80% in abundance of the biliary bacteria community. Specifically, the abundance of Proteobacteria decreased greatly while that of Firmicutes and Bacteroidota increased greatly in the diseased groups when compared to that in HCs. Moreover, linear discriminant analysis identified several genera highly represented in the diseased groups. Among them, Klebsiella, Prevotella, Pseudomonas and Veillonella are persistent in both the HCs group and the diseased groups, indicating an enrichment of local bile bacteria in the diseased bile; while Lachnoanerobaculum, Atopobium, Oribacterium, and Stomatobaculum, those aligned to oral cavity taxa, are persistent in the diseased groups but are transient in the HCs group, and their abundances sequentially increased with the disease development and progression (HCs→GBS→CBDS→SCBD), implying a translocation and colonization of the oral cavity bacteria in the diseased bile. Moreover, co-occurrence network analysis revealed that bacterial infection (e.g., Photobacterium and Plesiomonas) from the intestine was developed during endoscopic surgery with reduced bile bacteria diversity. The results of this study revealed that the bile bacterial community is relatively stable and dominated by a few persistent taxa. Moreover, we hypothesized that translocation and colonization of specific bacteria from the oral cavity happens alongside gallstone disease development and progression, and bacterial infection from the intestinal tract results in poor outcomes after endoscopic surgery.

ABO-Incompatible Liver Transplantation under the Desensitization Protocol with Rituximab: Effect on Biliary Microbiota and Metabolites

Background: ABO-incompatible liver transplantation (ABOi LT) under the desensitization protocol with rituximab had excellent survival outcomes comparable to those of ABO-compatible liver transplantation (ABOc LT). In this work, we explored the effect of ABOi LT on recipients from the perspective of biliary microbiota and metabonomics. Methods: Liver transplant (LT) recipients treated at our center were enrolled in the study. In total, 6 ABOi LT recipients and 12 ABOc LT recipients were enrolled, and we collected their bile five times (during LT and at 2 days, 1 week, 2 weeks and 1 month after LT). The collected samples were used for 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis. Results: We obtained 90 bile samples. Whether in group ABOi LT or ABOc LT, the most common phyla in all of the samples were Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. The most common genera were Lactobacillus, Weissella, Klebsiella, Pantoea and Lactococcus. There was no significant difference in the diversity between the two groups at 1 week, 2 weeks and 1 month after LT. However, the biggest disparities between the ABOi LT recipients and ABOc LT recipients were observed 2 days after LT, including increased biodiversity with a higher ACE, Chao1, OBS and Shannon index (p < 0.05), and more Staphylococcus in ABOi LT and binary−Jaccard dissimilarity, which indicated varying β-diversity (p = 0.046). These differences were not observed at 1 week, 2 weeks and 1 month after LT. The principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) revealed that the composition of the bile microbiota did not change significantly within 1 month after LT by longitudinal comparison. In an analysis of the bile components, the metabolites were not significantly different every time. However, four enrichment KEGG pathways were observed among the groups. Conclusion: These findings suggest that ABOi LT under the desensitization protocol with rituximab did not significantly affect the biliary microbiota and metabolites of recipients.

Metagenomic Sequencing of the Gallbladder Microbiome: Bacterial Diversity Does Not Vary by Surgical Pathology

INTRODUCTION

Alterations in the microbiome contribute to the pathogenesis of many gastrointestinal diseases. However, the composition of the microbiome in gallbladder disease is not well described.

METHODS

We aimed to characterize the biliary microbiome in cholecystectomy patients. Bile and biliary stones were collected at cholecystectomy for a variety of surgical indications between 2017 and 2019. DNA was extracted and metagenomic sequencing was performed with subsequent taxonomic classification using Kraken2. The fraction of bacterial to total DNA reads, relative abundance of bacterial species, and overall species diversity were compared between pathologies and demographics.

RESULTS

A total of 74 samples were obtained from 49 patients: 46 bile and 28 stones, with matched pairs from 25 patients. The mean age was 48 years, 76% were female, 29% were Hispanic, and 29% of patients had acute cholecystitis. The most abundant species were Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pasteurianus. The bacterial fraction in bile and stone samples was higher in acute cholecystitis compared to other non-infectious pathologies (p < 0.05). Neither the diversity nor differential prevalence of specific bacterial species varied significantly between infectious and other non-infectious gallbladder pathologies. Multivariate analysis of the non-infectious group revealed that patients over 40 years of age had increased bacterial fractions (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Metagenomic sequencing permits characterization of the gallbladder microbiome in cholecystectomy patients. Although a higher prevalence of bacteria was seen in acute cholecystitis, species and diversity were similar regardless of surgical indication. Additional study is required to determine how the microbiome can contribute to the development of symptomatic gallbladder disease.

Survival Strategies and Metabolic Interactions between Ruminococcus gauvreauii and Ruminococcoides bili, Isolated from Human Bile

Little is known about the bacteria that reside in the human gallbladder and the mechanisms that allow them to survive within this harsh environment. Here we describe interactions between two strains from a human bile sample, one Ruminococcus gauvreauii (IPLA60001), belonging to the Lachnospiraceae family, and the other, designated as Ruminococcoides bili (IPLA60002T; DSM 110008) most closely related to Ruminococcus bromii within the family Ruminococcaceae. We provide evidence for bile salt resistance and sporulation for these new strains. Both differed markedly in their carbohydrate metabolism. The R. bili strain mainly metabolized resistant starches to form formate, lactate and acetate. R. gauvreauii mainly metabolized sugar alcohols, including inositol and also utilized formate to generate acetate employing the Wood Ljungdahl pathway. Amino acid and vitamin biosynthesis genomic profiles also differed markedly between the two isolates, likely contributing to their synergistic interactions, as revealed by transcriptomic analysis of cocultures. Transcriptome analysis also revealed that R. gauvreauii IPLA60001 is able to grow using the end-products of starch metabolism formed by the R. bili strain such as formate, and potentially other compounds (such as ethanolamine and inositol) possibly provided by the autolytic behavior of R. bili. IMPORTANCE Unique insights into metabolic interaction between two isolates; Ruminococcus gauvreauii IPLA60001 and Ruminococcoides bili IPLA60002, from the human gallbladder, are presented here. The R. bili strain metabolized resistant starches while R. gauvreauii failed to do so but grew well on sugar alcohols. Transcriptomic analysis of cocultures of these strains, provides new data on the physiology and ecology of two bacteria from human bile, with a particular focus on cross-feeding mechanisms. Both biliary strains displayed marked resistance to bile and possess many efflux transporters, potentially involved in bile export. However, they differ markedly in their amino acid catabolism and vitamin synthesis capabilities, a feature that is therefore likely to contribute to the strong synergistic interactions between these strains. This is therefore the first study that provides evidence for syntrophic metabolic cooperation between bacterial strains isolated from human bile.

Utilizing Gut Microbiota to Improve Hepatobiliary Tumor Treatments: Recent Advances

Hepatobiliary tumors, which include cholangiocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and gallbladder cancer, are common cancers that have high morbidity and mortality rates and poor survival outcomes. In humans, the microbiota is comprised of symbiotic microbial cells (10-100 trillion) that belong to the bacterial ecosystem mainly residing in the gut. The gut microbiota is a complicated group that can largely be found in the intestine and has a dual role in cancer occurrence and progression. Previous research has focused on the crucial functions of the intestinal microflora as the main pathophysiological mechanism in HCC development. Intestinal bacteria produce a broad range of metabolites that exhibit a variety of pro- and anticarcinogenic effects on HCC. Therefore, probiotic alteration of the gut microflora could promote gut flora balance and help prevent the occurrence of HCC. Recent evidence from clinical and translational studies suggests that fecal microbiota transplant is one of the most successful therapies to correct intestinal bacterial imbalance. We review the literature describing the effects and mechanisms of the microbiome in the gut in the context of HCC, including gut bacterial metabolites, probiotics, antibiotics, and the transplantation of fecal microbiota, and discuss the potential influence of the microbiome environment on cholangiocarcinoma and gallbladder cancer. Our findings are expected to reveal therapeutic targets for the prevention of hepatobiliary tumors, and the development of clinical treatment strategies, by emphasizing the function of the gut microbiota.

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Uses of the Microbiome in the Field of Oncology

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and it can affect almost every part of the human body. Effective screening and early diagnosis of cancers is extremely difficult due to the multifactorial etiology of the disease and delayed presentation of the patients. The available treatments are usually not specific to the affected organ system, leading to intolerable systemic side effects and early withdrawal from therapies. In vivo and in vitro studies have revealed an association of specific microbiome signatures with individual cancers. The cancer-related human microbiome has also been shown to affect the response of tissues to chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiation. This is an excellent opportunity for us to design specific screening markers using the microbiome to prevent cancers and diagnose them early. We can also develop precise treatments that can target cancer-affected specific organ systems and probably use a lesser dose of chemotherapy or radiation for the same effect. This prevents adverse effects and early cessation of treatments. However, we need further studies to exactly clarify and characterize these associations. In this review article, we focus on the association of the microbiome with individual cancers and highlight its future role in cancer screenings, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatments.