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Gaffney LP, Lavery JM. Research Before Policy: Identifying Gaps in Salmonid Welfare Research That Require Further Study to Inform Evidence-Based Aquaculture Guidelines in Canada. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:768558. [PMID: 35155641 PMCID: PMC8835349 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.768558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaculture is a growing industry worldwide and Canadian finfish culture is dominated by marine salmonid farming. In part due to increasing public and stakeholder concerns around fish welfare protection, the first-ever Canadian Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farmed Salmonids was recently completed, following the National Farm Animal Care Council's (NFACC) rigorous Code development process. During this process, both the Scientific (responsible for reviewing existing literature and producing a peer-reviewed report that informs the Code) and Code Development (a diverse group of stakeholders including aquaculture producers, fish transporters, aquaculture veterinarians, animal welfare advocates, food retailers, government, and researchers) Committees identified research gaps in tandem, as they worked through the literature on salmonid physiology, health, husbandry, and welfare. When those lists are combined with the results of a public "top-of-mind" survey conducted by NFACC, they reveal several overlapping areas of scientific, stakeholder, and public concern where scientific evidence is currently lacking: (1) biodensity; (2) health monitoring and management, with a focus on sea lice infection prevention and management; (3) feed quality and management, particularly whether feed restriction or deprivation has consequences for welfare; (4) enclosure design, especially focused on environmental enrichment provision and lighting design; and (5) slaughter and euthanasia. For each of these five research areas, we provide a brief overview of current research on the topic and outline the specific research gaps present. The final section of this review identifies future research avenues that will help address these research gaps, including using existing paradigms developed by terrestrial animal welfare researchers, developing novel methods for assessing fish welfare, and the validation of new salmonid welfare indices. We conclude that there is no dearth of relevant research to be done in the realm of farmed salmonid welfare that can support crucial evidence-based fish welfare policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh P. Gaffney
- National Animal Welfare Representative, Code Development Committee (NFACC) for the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm Animal Care Council (NFACC), Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - J. Michelle Lavery
- Scientific Committee (NFACC) for the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farmed Salmonids, National Farm Animal Care Council (NFACC), Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Cantrell DL, Rees EE, Vanderstichel R, Grant J, Filgueira R, Revie CW. The Use of Kernel Density Estimation With a Bio-Physical Model Provides a Method to Quantify Connectivity Among Salmon Farms: Spatial Planning and Management With Epidemiological Relevance. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:269. [PMID: 30425996 PMCID: PMC6218437 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Connectivity in an aquatic setting is determined by a combination of hydrodynamic circulation and the biology of the organisms driving linkages. These complex processes can be simulated in coupled biological-physical models. The physical model refers to an underlying circulation model defined by spatially-explicit nodes, often incorporating a particle-tracking model. The particles can then be given biological parameters or behaviors (such as maturity and/or survivability rates, diel vertical migrations, avoidance, or seeking behaviors). The output of the bio-physical models can then be used to quantify connectivity among the nodes emitting and/or receiving the particles. Here we propose a method that makes use of kernel density estimation (KDE) on the output of a particle-tracking model, to quantify the infection or infestation pressure (IP) that each node causes on the surrounding area. Because IP is the product of both exposure time and the concentration of infectious agent particles, using KDE (which also combine elements of time and space), more accurately captures IP. This method is especially useful for those interested in infectious agent networks, a situation where IP is a superior measure of connectivity than the probability of particles from each node reaching other nodes. Here we illustrate the method by modeling the connectivity of salmon farms via sea lice larvae in the Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada. Analysis revealed evidence of two sub-networks of farms connected via a single farm, and evidence that the highest IP from a given emitting farm was often tens of kilometers or more away from that farm. We also classified farms as net emitters, receivers, or balanced, based on their structural role within the network. By better understanding how these salmon farms are connected to each other via their sea lice larvae, we can effectively focus management efforts to minimize the spread of sea lice between farms, advise on future site locations and coordinated treatment efforts, and minimize any impact of farms on juvenile wild salmon. The method has wide applicability for any system where capturing infectious agent networks can provide useful guidance for management or preventative planning decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle L Cantrell
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - Erin E Rees
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada.,Land and Sea Systems Analysis, Granby, QC, Canada
| | - Raphael Vanderstichel
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - Jon Grant
- Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Ramón Filgueira
- Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Crawford W Revie
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
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3
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Association between sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation on Atlantic salmon farms and wild Pacific salmon in Muchalat Inlet, Canada. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4023. [PMID: 29507330 PMCID: PMC5838213 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22458-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth in salmon aquaculture over the past two decades has raised concerns regarding the potential impacts of the industry on neighboring ecosystems and wild fish productivity. Despite limited evidence, sea lice have been identified as a major cause for the decline in some wild Pacific salmon populations on the west coast of Canada. We used sea lice count and management data from farmed and wild salmon, collected over 10 years (2007–2016) in the Muchalat Inlet region of Canada, to evaluate the association between sea lice recorded on salmon farms with the infestation levels on wild out-migrating Chum salmon. Our analyses indicated a significant positive association between the sea lice abundance on farms and the likelihood that wild fish would be infested. However, increased abundance of lice on farms was not significantly associated with the levels of infestation observed on the wild salmon. Our results suggest that Atlantic salmon farms may be an important source for the introduction of sea lice to wild Pacific salmon populations, but that the absence of a dose response relationship indicates that any estimate of farm impact requires more careful evaluation of causal inference than is typically seen in the extant scientific literature.
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Cox R, Groner ML, Todd CD, Gettinby G, Patanasatienkul T, Revie CW. Mate limitation in sea lice infesting wild salmon hosts: the influence of parasite sex ratio and aggregation. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- R. Cox
- Department of Health Management; Atlantic Veterinary College; University of Prince Edward Island; Charlottetown Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3 Canada
| | - M. L. Groner
- Department of Health Management; Atlantic Veterinary College; University of Prince Edward Island; Charlottetown Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3 Canada
| | - C. D. Todd
- Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St. Andrews; St. Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - G. Gettinby
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow G1 1XH UK
| | - T. Patanasatienkul
- Department of Health Management; Atlantic Veterinary College; University of Prince Edward Island; Charlottetown Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3 Canada
| | - C. W. Revie
- Department of Health Management; Atlantic Veterinary College; University of Prince Edward Island; Charlottetown Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3 Canada
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Groner ML, Rogers LA, Bateman AW, Connors BM, Frazer LN, Godwin SC, Krkošek M, Lewis MA, Peacock SJ, Rees EE, Revie CW, Schlägel UE. Lessons from sea louse and salmon epidemiology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0203. [PMID: 26880836 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective disease management can benefit from mathematical models that identify drivers of epidemiological change and guide decision-making. This is well illustrated in the host-parasite system of sea lice and salmon, which has been modelled extensively due to the economic costs associated with sea louse infections on salmon farms and the conservation concerns associated with sea louse infections on wild salmon. Consequently, a rich modelling literature devoted to sea louse and salmon epidemiology has been developed. We provide a synthesis of the mathematical and statistical models that have been used to study the epidemiology of sea lice and salmon. These studies span both conceptual and tactical models to quantify the effects of infections on host populations and communities, describe and predict patterns of transmission and dispersal, and guide evidence-based management of wild and farmed salmon. As aquaculture production continues to increase, advances made in modelling sea louse and salmon epidemiology should inform the sustainable management of marine resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya L Groner
- Department of Health Management, Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Luke A Rogers
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B2
| | - Andrew W Bateman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B2 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9 Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada V0P 1S0
| | - Brendan M Connors
- Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada V0P 1S0 ESSA Technologies Ltd, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6H 3H4 School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6
| | - L Neil Frazer
- Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada V0P 1S0 Department of Geology and Geophysics, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA
| | - Sean C Godwin
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6
| | - Martin Krkošek
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B2 Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada V0P 1S0
| | - Mark A Lewis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9 Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G1
| | - Stephanie J Peacock
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Erin E Rees
- Department of Health Management, Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Crawford W Revie
- Department of Health Management, Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Ulrike E Schlägel
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G1
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Elmoslemany A, Revie CW, Milligan B, Stewardson L, Vanderstichel R. Wild juvenile salmonids in Muchalat Inlet, British Columbia, Canada: factors associated with sea lice prevalence. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 117:107-120. [PMID: 26648103 DOI: 10.3354/dao02939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The Muchalat Inlet, British Columbia, is among the most westerly points at which aquaculture is practiced in Canada. In this paper, we summarise data from over 18000 wild fish sampled at 16 sites over an 8 yr period, between 2004 and 2011. The most prevalent wild species was chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta (82.4%), followed by Chinook O. tshawytscha (10%) and coho O. kisutch (4.3%). However, inter-annual and seasonal variation was evident, and smaller numbers of other Pacific salmon and stickleback species were sporadically observed. A high percentage of wild salmon (~95%) had no sea lice parasites present, with less than 1% of the fish hosting a mobile-stage sea louse. Of the data for which sea lice species were recorded, just over 96% of samples were identified as Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Logistic regression models assessed the association between the presence of lice and a range of independent variables. These models indicated a significant degree of spatial variation, much of which could be explained in terms of salinity levels. There were also important variations through time, both over the season within a year and across years. In addition, coho salmon were significantly more likely (odds ratio = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.20-2.3) to be infected than chum salmon. The protective effect of low salinity was most clearly seen at values lower than 15 psu, although this was dependent on fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Elmoslemany
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3, Canada
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Peacock SJ, Krkošek M, Bateman AW, Lewis MA. Parasitism and food web dynamics of juvenile Pacific salmon. Ecosphere 2015. [DOI: 10.1890/es15-00337.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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McEwan GF, Groner ML, Fast MD, Gettinby G, Revie CW. Using Agent-Based Modelling to Predict the Role of Wild Refugia in the Evolution of Resistance of Sea Lice to Chemotherapeutants. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139128. [PMID: 26485023 PMCID: PMC4618729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A major challenge for Atlantic salmon farming in the northern hemisphere is infestation by the sea louse parasite Lepeophtheirus salmonis. The most frequent method of controlling these sea louse infestations is through the use of chemical treatments. However, most major salmon farming areas have observed resistance to common chemotherapeutants. In terrestrial environments, many strategies employed to manage the evolution of resistance involve the use of refugia, where a portion of the population is left untreated to maintain susceptibility. While refugia have not been deliberately used in Atlantic salmon farming, wild salmon populations that migrate close to salmon farms may act as natural refugia. In this paper we describe an agent-based model that explores the influence of different sizes of wild salmon populations on resistance evolution in sea lice on a salmon farm. Using the model, we demonstrate that wild salmon populations can act as refugia that limit the evolution of resistance in the sea louse populations. Additionally, we demonstrate that an increase in the size of the population of wild salmon results in an increased effect in slowing the evolution of resistance. We explore the effect of a population fitness cost associated with resistance, finding that in some cases it substantially reduces the speed of evolution to chemical treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor F. McEwan
- Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada, C1A 4P3
- * E-mail:
| | - Maya L. Groner
- Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada, C1A 4P3
| | - Mark D. Fast
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada, C1A 4P3
| | - George Gettinby
- Department of Mathematics & Statistics, University of Strathclyde, Richmond Street, Glasgow, G1 1XH, Scotland, UK
| | - Crawford W. Revie
- Centre for Veterinary and Epidemiological Research, Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada, C1A 4P3
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Patanasatienkul T, Sanchez J, Rees EE, Pfeiffer D, Revie CW. Space-time cluster analysis of sea lice infestation (Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis) on wild juvenile Pacific salmon in the Broughton Archipelago of Canada. Prev Vet Med 2015; 120:219-231. [PMID: 25869117 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Sea lice infestation levels on wild chum and pink salmon in the Broughton Archipelago region are known to vary spatially and temporally; however, the locations of areas associated with a high infestation level had not been investigated yet. In the present study, the multivariate spatial scan statistic based on a Poisson model was used to assess spatial clustering of elevated sea lice (Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation levels on wild chum and pink salmon sampled between March and July of 2004 to 2012 in the Broughton Archipelago and Knight Inlet regions of British Columbia, Canada. Three covariates, seine type (beach and purse seining), fish size, and year effect, were used to provide adjustment within the analyses. The analyses were carried out across the five months/datasets and between two fish species to assess the consistency of the identified clusters. Sea lice stages were explored separately for the early life stages (non-motile) and the late life stages of sea lice (motile). Spatial patterns in fish migration were also explored using monthly plots showing the average number of each fish species captured per sampling site. The results revealed three clusters for non-motile C. clemensi, two clusters for non-motile L. salmonis, and one cluster for the motile stage in each of the sea lice species. In general, the location and timing of clusters detected for both fish species were similar. Early in the season, the clusters of elevated sea lice infestation levels on wild fish are detected in areas closer to the rivers, with decreasing relative risks as the season progresses. Clusters were detected further from the estuaries later in the season, accompanied by increasing relative risks. In addition, the plots for fish migration exhibit similar patterns for both fish species in that, as expected, the juveniles move from the rivers toward the open ocean as the season progresses The identification of space-time clustering of infestation on wild fish from this study can help in targeting investigations of factors associated with these infestations and thereby support the development of more effective sea lice control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thitiwan Patanasatienkul
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3.
| | - Javier Sanchez
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Erin E Rees
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Dirk Pfeiffer
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics & Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Crawford W Revie
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
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