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Nazareth TDM, Soriano Pérez E, Luz C, Meca G, Quiles JM. Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A Dynamics: Emergence, Toxicological Impact, and Advanced Control Strategies. Foods 2024; 13:1920. [PMID: 38928866 PMCID: PMC11203094 DOI: 10.3390/foods13121920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi exhibit remarkable adaptability to diverse substrates and can synthesize a plethora of secondary metabolites. These metabolites, produced in response to environmental stimuli, not only confer selective advantages but also encompass potentially deleterious mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, exemplified by those originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, represent challenging hazards to both human and animal health, thus warranting stringent regulatory control. Despite regulatory frameworks, mycotoxin contamination remains a pressing global challenge, particularly within cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products, integral components of animal diets. Strategies aimed at mitigating mycotoxin contamination encompass multifaceted approaches, including biological control modalities, detoxification procedures, and innovative interventions like essential oils. However, hurdles persist, underscoring the imperative for innovative interventions. This review elucidated the prevalence, health ramifications, regulatory paradigms, and evolving preventive strategies about two prominent mycotoxins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, it explored the emergence of new fungal species, and biocontrol methods using lactic acid bacteria and essential mustard oil, emphasizing their efficacy in mitigating fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production. Through an integrative examination of these facets, this review endeavored to furnish a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination and the emergent strategies poised to ameliorate its impact on food and feed safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago de Melo Nazareth
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (E.S.P.); (C.L.); (G.M.); (J.M.Q.)
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Li W, Chen Z, Li X, Li X, Hui Y, Chen W. The Biosynthesis, Structure Diversity and Bioactivity of Sterigmatocystins and Aflatoxins: A Review. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:396. [PMID: 38921382 PMCID: PMC11204465 DOI: 10.3390/jof10060396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins mainly isolated from fungi of the genera Aspergillus. Since the discovery of sterigmatocystins in 1954 and aflatoxins in 1961, many scholars have conducted a series of studies on their structural identification, synthesis and biological activities. Studies have shown that sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins have a wide range of biological activities such as antitumour, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial, etc. The sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins had been shown to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in animals. This review attempts to give a comprehensive summary of progress on the chemical structural features, synthesis, and bioactivity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins reported from 1954 to April 2024. A total of 72 sterigmatocystins and 20 aflatoxins are presented in this review. This paper reviews the chemical diversity and potential activity and toxicity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins, enhances the understanding of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins that adversely affect humans and animals, and provides ideas for their prevention, research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxing Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Zhaoxia Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Xize Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Xinrui Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Yang Hui
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
| | - Wenhao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Resource Chemistry of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China; (W.L.); (Z.C.); (X.L.); (X.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Medicinal Plant Chemistry of Hainan Province, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
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Zeng H, Cai J, Hatabayashi H, Nakagawa H, Nakajima H, Yabe K. verA Gene is Involved in the Step to Make the Xanthone Structure of Demethylsterigmatocystin in Aflatoxin Biosynthesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21176389. [PMID: 32887494 PMCID: PMC7503927 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the biosynthesis of aflatoxin, verA, ver-1, ordB, and hypA genes of the aflatoxin gene cluster are involved in the pathway from versicolorin A (VA) to demethylsterigmatocystin (DMST). We herein isolated each disruptant of these four genes to determine their functions in more detail. Disruptants of ver-1, ordB, and hypA genes commonly accumulated VA in their mycelia. In contrast, the verA gene disruptant accumulated a novel yellow fluorescent substance (which we named HAMA) in the mycelia as well as culture medium. Feeding HAMA to the other disruptants commonly caused the production of aflatoxins B1 (AFB1) and G1 (AFG1). These results indicate that HAMA pigment is a novel aflatoxin precursor which is involved at a certain step after those of ver-1, ordB, and hypA genes between VA and DMST. HAMA was found to be an unstable substance to easily convert to DMST and sterigmatin. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis showed that the molecular mass of HAMA was 374, and HAMA gave two close major peaks in the LC chromatogram in some LC conditions. We suggest that these peaks correspond to the two conformers of HAMA; one of them would be selectively bound on the substrate binding site of VerA enzyme and then converted to DMST. VerA enzyme may work as a key enzyme in the creation of the xanthone structure of DMST from HAMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Zeng
- Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2-1-12 Kannon-dai, Tsukuba-shi 305-8642, Ibaraki, Japan; (H.Z.); (J.C.); (H.H.); (H.N.)
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jingjing Cai
- Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2-1-12 Kannon-dai, Tsukuba-shi 305-8642, Ibaraki, Japan; (H.Z.); (J.C.); (H.H.); (H.N.)
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Hidemi Hatabayashi
- Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2-1-12 Kannon-dai, Tsukuba-shi 305-8642, Ibaraki, Japan; (H.Z.); (J.C.); (H.H.); (H.N.)
| | - Hiroyuki Nakagawa
- Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2-1-12 Kannon-dai, Tsukuba-shi 305-8642, Ibaraki, Japan; (H.Z.); (J.C.); (H.H.); (H.N.)
| | - Hiromitsu Nakajima
- Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Koyama, Tottori 680-8553, Japan;
| | - Kimiko Yabe
- Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 2-1-12 Kannon-dai, Tsukuba-shi 305-8642, Ibaraki, Japan; (H.Z.); (J.C.); (H.H.); (H.N.)
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Environmental and Information Sciences, Fukui University of Technology, 3-6-1 Gakuen, Fukui-shi, Fukui 910-8505, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-776-29-2408
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Size and coating of engineered silver nanoparticles determine their ability to growth-independently inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:4623-4632. [PMID: 30997552 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09693-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies from our laboratory indicate that engineered silver nanoparticles can inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis even at concentrations at which they do not demonstrate antifungal activities on the aflatoxin-producing fungus. Whether such inhibition can be modified by altering the nanoparticles' physical properties remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that three differently sized citrated-coated silver nanoparticles denoted here as NP1, NP2, and NP3 (where, sizes of NP1 < NP2 < NP3) inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis at different effective doses in Aspergillus parasiticus, the plant pathogenic filamentous fungus. Recapping NP2 with polyvinylpyrrolidone coating (denoted here as NP2p) also altered its ability to inhibit aflatoxin production. Dose-response experiments with NP concentrations ranging from 10 to 100 ng mL-1 indicated a non-monotonic relationship between aflatoxin inhibition and NP concentration. The maximum inhibitory concentrations differed between the NP types. NP1 demonstrated maximum inhibition at 25 ng mL-1. Both NP2 and NP3 showed maximum inhibition at 50 ng mL-1, although NP2 resulted in a significantly higher inhibition than NP3. While both NP2 and NP2p demonstrated greater aflatoxin inhibition than NP1 and NP3, NP2p inhibited aflatoxin over a significantly wider concentration range as compared to NP2. Our results, therefore, suggest that nano-fungal interactions can be regulated by altering certain NP physical properties. This concept can be used to design NPs for mycotoxin prevention optimally.
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Kushiro M, Hatabayashi H, Zheng Y, Yabe K. Application of newly-developed dichlorvos–ammonia (DV–AM) method to direct isolation of aflatoxigenic fungi from field soils. MYCOSCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.myc.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Yabe K, Hatabayashi H, Ikehata A, Zheng Y, Kushiro M. Development of the dichlorvos-ammonia (DV-AM) method for the visual detection of aflatoxigenic fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:10681-94. [PMID: 26300294 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6924-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2015] [Revised: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are carcinogenic and toxic secondary metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. To monitor and regulate the AF contamination of crops, a sensitive and precise detection method for these toxigenic fungi in environments is necessary. We herein developed a novel visual detection method, the dichlorvos-ammonia (DV-AM) method, for identifying AF-producing fungi using DV and AM vapor on agar culture plates, in which DV inhibits the esterase in AF biosynthesis, causing the accumulation of anthraquinone precursors (versiconal hemiacetal acetate and versiconol acetate) of AFs in mycelia on the agar plate, followed by a change in the color of the colonies from light yellow to brilliant purple-red by the AM vapor treatment. We also investigated the appropriate culture conditions to increase the color intensity. It should be noted that other species producing the same precursors of AFs such as Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus versicolor could be discriminated from the Aspergillus section Flavi based on the differences of their phenotypes. The DV-AM method was also useful for the isolation of nonaflatoxigenic fungi showing no color change, for screening microorganisms that inhibit the AF production by fungi, and for the characterization of the fungi infecting corn kernels. Thus, the DV-AM method can provide a highly sensitive and visible indicator for the detection of aflatoxigenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimiko Yabe
- National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan.
- Department of Environmental and Food Sciences, Fukui University of Technology, 3-6-1, Gakuen, Fukui-shi, Fukui, 910-8505, Japan.
| | - Hidemi Hatabayashi
- National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan
| | - Akifumi Ikehata
- National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan
| | - Yazhi Zheng
- National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan
| | - Masayo Kushiro
- National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8642, Japan
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Tatsuda D, Momose I, Someno T, Sawa R, Kubota Y, Iijima M, Kunisada T, Watanabe T, Shibasaki M, Nomoto A. Quinofuracins A-E, produced by the fungus Staphylotrichum boninense PF1444, show p53-dependent growth suppression. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2015; 78:188-195. [PMID: 25611347 DOI: 10.1021/np500581m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Quinofuracins A-E, novel anthraquinone derivatives containing β-D-galactofuranose that were isolated from the fungus Staphylotrichum boninense PF1444, induced p53-dependent cell death in human tumor cells. The structures of quinofuracins A-E, including absolute configurations, were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis and chemical transformation studies. Quinofuracins were classified into three groups according to the aglycone moieties. 5'-Oxoaverantin was present in quinofuracins A-C, whereas averantin and versicolorin B were identified in quinofuracins D and E, respectively. These quinofuracins induced p53-dependent growth suppression in human glioblastoma LNZTA3 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Tatsuda
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu , 18-24 Miyamoto, Numazu-shi, Shizuoka 410-0301, Japan
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Chiba T, Takahashi Y, Sadamasu K, Nakama A, Kai A. [Discrimination of Aspergillus flavus group fungi using phylogenetic tree analysis and multiplex PCR]. Food Hygiene and Safety Science (Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi) 2014; 55:135-41. [PMID: 24990760 DOI: 10.3358/shokueishi.55.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We describe a simple method for discrimination of Aspergillus flavus group fungi, including aflatoxin (AF) producers, by means of molecular-biological analysis of 45 strains of A. flavus. First, 20 strains of A. flavus were compared using phylogenetic tree analysis based on the nucleotide sequences of ITS 1-5.8S-ITS 2 (ITS-1/2) and aflR-aflJ intergenic spacer (aflR/J-IGS). In this analysis, the tested strains were discriminated into 4 groups at the aflR/J-IGS region. Although ITS-1/2 region analysis could not discriminate between A. flavus (AF producers) and A. oryzae/A. flavus (AF nonproducers), aflR/J-IGS region analysis could discriminate between these groups. Moreover, 45 strains of A. flavus were compared by means of both phylogenetic tree analysis based on the aflR/J-IGS region and the conventional aflatoxin production test (culture method). The phylogenetic tree analysis of the tested strains was consistent with the findings of the culture method. In addition, 49 strains of A. flavus and related species (Aspergillus spp.) were tested by multiplex PCR with primers designed on the basis of the phylogenetic tree analysis. These results were consistent with phylogenetic tree analysis based on the aflR/J-IGS region for 41 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Chiba
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health
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Sasaki R, Hossain MZ, Abe N, Uchigashima M, Goto T. Development of an analytical method for the determination of sterigmatocystin in grains using LCMS after immunoaffinity column purification. Mycotoxin Res 2014; 30:123-9. [PMID: 24696064 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-014-0196-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin sterigmatocystin (STC) is produced mainly by some Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi; it naturally contaminates cereals, peanuts, and products derived from these crops, and is both mutagenic and carcinogenic. As an intermediate of aflatoxin (AF) biosynthesis, its structure is similar to that of AF. Although immunoaffinity columns (IACs) are a popular approach to sample clean-up, no IAC is commercially available for STC, but a commercially available IAC for AF shows cross reactivity to STC. We here developed a new method for analyzing STC in grains using such an IAC and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS), and validated this method using six different grains. The STC limit of detection (signal-to-noise ratio, S/N = 3) was 2.5 pg (1.0 μg/kg in the product), and the calibration curve was linear in the range of 7.5-375 pg (3.0-150 μg/kg in the product). The within-day recovery of STC from samples spiked with STC at 5.0 and 50 μg/kg was 83.2-102.5% and the RSDr (relative standard deviation of repeatability) of these samples was 1.9-6.5%; the RSDr of STC-pretreated grain samples was 3.1-14.0%. Average recovery of STC from samples spiked with STC in the range of 5.0-100 μg/kg STC was 83.2-102.5%, with an RSDr of 0.24-6.5%; the RSDr of STC-pretreated grain samples was 2.4-14.0%. In an intermediate precision study, the average STC recovery from STC-spiked samples by three analysts was 95.2-107.5%, with RSDRi (intermediate precision) of 4.0-7.1%; the RSDRi of the STC-pretreated samples was 4.8-10.4%. Thus, the proposed method was effective for STC analysis in grains, and holds potential for a novel application of a commercial IAC, intended for AFs, in STC analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sasaki
- Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, 8304 Minami-minowa-Mura, Kamiina, Nagano, 399-4598, Japan
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Production of M-/GM-group aflatoxins catalyzed by the OrdA enzyme in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Fungal Genet Biol 2012; 49:744-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2012.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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