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Kim JH, Ishizuka S, Kitamura K, Murakami G, Rodríguez-Vázquez JF, Abe SI, Kasahara M. Ontogenic transformation of the ankle from the initial mediolateral arrangement of the calcaneus and talus: A histological study of human embryos and early fetuses. J Anat 2024. [PMID: 39032027 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The human calcaneus is robust and provides a prominent heel for effective bipedal locomotion, although the adjacent talus has no muscle attachments. However, there is incomplete information about the morphological changes in these prominent bones during embryo development. We examined serial histological sections of 23 human embryos and early-term fetuses (approximately 5-10 weeks' gestational age [GA]). At a GA of 5 weeks, the precartilage talus was parallel to and on the medial side of the calcaneus, which had a prolate spheroid shape and consisted of three masses. At a GA of 6 weeks, the cartilaginous talus extended along the proximodistal axis, and the tuber calcanei became long and bulky, with a small sustentaculum talus at the "distal" side. At a GA of 6 to 8 weeks, the sustentaculum had a medial extension below the talus so that the talus "rode over" the calcaneus. In contrast, the talus had a more complex shape, depending on the growth of adjacent bones. At a GA of 9 to 10 weeks, the talus was above the calcaneus, but the medial part still faced the plantar subcutaneous tissue because of the relatively small sustentaculum. Therefore, the final morphology appeared after an additional several weeks. Muscle activity seemed to facilitate growth of the tuber calcanei, but growth of the other parts of calcaneus, including the sustentaculum, seemed to depend on active proliferation at the different sites of cartilage. Multiple tendons and ligaments seemed to fix the talus so that it remained close to the calcaneus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyun Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Jeonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju, Korea
| | | | - Kei Kitamura
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Gen Murakami
- Division of Internal Medicine, Iwamizawa Asuka Hospital, Iwamizawa, Japan
| | | | - Shin-Ichi Abe
- Department of Anatomy, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
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Negishi T, Ogihara N. Regulation of whole-body angular momentum during human walking. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8000. [PMID: 37198286 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34910-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
In human walking, whole-body angular momentum (WBAM) about the body centre-of-mass is reportedly maintained in a small range throughout a gait cycle by the intersegmental cancellation of angular momentum. However, the WBAM is certainly not zero, which indicates that external moments applied from the ground due to ground reaction forces (GRFs) and vertical free moments (VFMs) counteract the WBAM. This study provides a complete dataset of the WBAM, each segmental angular momentum, and the external moments due to GRFs and VFMs during human walking. This is done to test whether (1) the three components of the WBAM are cancelled by coordinated intersegmental movements, and whether (2) the external moments due to GRFs and VFMs contribute only minimally to WBAM regulation throughout a gait cycle. This study demonstrates that WBAM is regulated in a small range not only by the segment-to-segment cancellation, but also largely through contributions by the GRFs. The magnitude of VFM is significantly smaller than the peak vertical moment generated by the GRFs; however, in the single-support phase during walking, the VFM is possibly critical for coping with the change in the vertical WBAM due to force perturbations and arm or trunk movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuo Negishi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
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Negishi T, Ogihara N. Functional significance of vertical free moment for generation of human bipedal walking. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6894. [PMID: 37106093 PMCID: PMC10140179 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34153-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In human bipedal walking, the plantar surface of the foot is in contact with the floor surface, so that a vertical free moment (VFM), a torque about a vertical axis acting at the centre-of-pressure due to friction between the foot and the ground, is generated and applied to the foot. The present study investigated the functional significance of the VFM in the mechanics and evolution of human bipedal walking by analysing kinematics and kinetics of human walking when the VFM is selectively eliminated using point-contact shoes. When the VFM was selectively eliminated during walking, the thorax and pelvis axially rotated in-phase, as opposed to normal out-of-phase rotation. The amplitudes of the axial rotation also significantly increased, indicating that the VFM greatly contributes to stable and efficient bipedal walking. However, such changes in the trunk movement occurred only when arm swing was restricted, suggesting that the VFM is critical only when arm swing is restrained. Therefore, the human plantigrade foot capable of generating large VFM is possibly adaptive for bipedal walking with carrying food, corroborating with the so-called provisioning hypothesis that food carrying in the early hominins is a selective pressure for the evolution of human bipedalism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuo Negishi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
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Nozaki S, Kinugasa R, Yaeshima K, Hashimoto T, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Quantification of the in vivo stiffness and natural length of the human plantar aponeurosis during quiet standing using ultrasound elastography. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15707. [PMID: 36127445 PMCID: PMC9489693 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20211-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the stiffness and natural length of the human plantar aponeurosis (PA) during quiet standing using ultrasound shear wave elastography. The shear wave velocity (SWV) of the PA in young healthy males and females (10 participants each) was measured by placing a probe in a hole in the floor plate. The change in the SWV with the passive dorsiflexion of the metatarsophalangeal (MP) joint was measured. The Young's modulus of the PA was estimated to be 64.7 ± 9.4 kPa, which exponentially increased with MP joint dorsiflexion. The PA was estimated to have the natural length when the MP joint was plantarflexed by 13.8°, indicating that the PA is stretched by arch compression during standing. However, the present study demonstrated that the estimated stiffness for the natural length in quiet standing was significantly larger than that in the unloaded condition, revealing that the PA during standing is stiffened by elongation and through the possible activation of intrinsic muscles. Such quantitative information possibly contributes to the detailed biomechanical modeling of the human foot, facilitating an improved understanding of the mechanical functions and pathogenetic mechanisms of the PA during movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhei Nozaki
- Laboratory of Human Evolutionary Biomechanics, Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Ryuta Kinugasa
- Department of Human Sciences, Kanagawa University, Kanagawa, 221-8686, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Yaeshima
- Department of Human Sciences, Kanagawa University, Kanagawa, 221-8686, Japan
| | - Takeshi Hashimoto
- Sports Medicine Research Center, Keio University, Kanagawa, 223-8521, Japan
| | - Masahiro Jinzaki
- Department of Radiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Laboratory of Human Evolutionary Biomechanics, Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
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Marcé-Nogué J. One step further in biomechanical models in palaeontology: a nonlinear finite element analysis review. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13890. [PMID: 35966920 PMCID: PMC9373974 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Finite element analysis (FEA) is no longer a new technique in the fields of palaeontology, anthropology, and evolutionary biology. It is nowadays a well-established technique within the virtual functional-morphology toolkit. However, almost all the works published in these fields have only applied the most basic FEA tools i.e., linear materials in static structural problems. Linear and static approximations are commonly used because they are computationally less expensive, and the error associated with these assumptions can be accepted. Nonetheless, nonlinearities are natural to be used in biomechanical models especially when modelling soft tissues, establish contacts between separated bones or the inclusion of buckling results. The aim of this review is to, firstly, highlight the usefulness of non-linearities and secondly, showcase these FEA tool to researchers that work in functional morphology and biomechanics, as non-linearities can improve their FEA models by widening the possible applications and topics that currently are not used in palaeontology and anthropology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Marcé-Nogué
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitat Rovira i Virgili Tarragona, Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain,Institut Català de Paleontologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalonia, Spain
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Matsumoto Y, Ogihara N, Hanawa H, Kokubun T, Kanemura N. Novel Multi-Segment Foot Model Incorporating Plantar Aponeurosis for Detailed Kinematic and Kinetic Analyses of the Foot With Application to Gait Studies. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:894731. [PMID: 35814002 PMCID: PMC9265906 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.894731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinetic multi-segment foot models have been proposed to evaluate the forces and moments generated in the foot during walking based on inverse dynamics calculations. However, these models did not consider the plantar aponeurosis (PA) despite its potential importance in generation of the ground reaction forces and storage and release of mechanical energy. This study aimed to develop a novel multi-segment foot model incorporating the PA to better elucidate foot kinetics. The foot model comprised three segments: the phalanx, forefoot, and hindfoot. The PA was modeled using five linear springs connecting the origins and the insertions via intermediate points. To demonstrate the efficacy of the foot model, an inverse dynamic analysis of human gait was performed and how the inclusion of the PA model altered the estimated joint moments was examined. Ten healthy men walked along a walkway with two force plates placed in series close together. The attempts in which the participant placed his fore- and hindfoot on the front and rear force plates, respectively, were selected for inverse dynamic analysis. The stiffness and the natural length of each PA spring remain largely uncertain. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate how the estimated joint moments were altered by the changes in the two parameters within a range reported by previous studies. The present model incorporating the PA predicted that 13%–45% of plantarflexion in the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint and 8%–29% of plantarflexion in the midtarsal joints were generated by the PA at the time of push-off during walking. The midtarsal joint generated positive work, whereas the MTP joint generated negative work in the late stance phase. The positive and negative work done by the two joints decreased, indicating that the PA contributed towards transfer of the energy absorbed at the MTP joint to generate positive work at the midtarsal joint during walking. Although validation is limited due to the difficulty associated with direct measurement of the PA force in vivo, the proposed novel foot model may serve as a useful tool to clarify the function and mechanical effects of the PA and the foot during dynamic movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Saitama Prefectural University, Graduate Course of Health and Social Services, Saitama, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroki Hanawa
- Department of Health Science, University of Human Arts and Sciences, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takanori Kokubun
- Department of Health and Social Services, Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Naohiko Kanemura
- Department of Health and Social Services, Saitama Prefectural University, Saitama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Naohiko Kanemura,
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