Toxicity of metal-based nanoparticles: Challenges in the nano era

Uncovering layer by layer the risk of nanoplastics to the environment and human health

Nanoplastics (NPs), defined as plastic particles with dimensions less than 100 nm, have emerged as a persistent environmental contaminant with potential risk to both environment and human health. Nanoplastics might translocate across biological barriers and accumulate in vital organs, leading to inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity, already reported in several organisms. Disruptions to cellular functions, hormonal balance, and immune responses were also linked to NPs exposure in in vitro assays. Further, NPs have been found to adsorb other pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and leach additives potentially amplifying their advere impacts, increasing the threat to organisms greater than NPs alone. However, NPs toxic effects remain largely unexplored, requiring further research to elucidate potential risks to human health, especially their accumulation, degradation, migration, interactions with the biological systems and long-term consequences of chronic exposure to these compounds. This review provides an overview of the current state-of-art regarding NPs interactions with environmental pollutants and with biological mechanisms and toxicity within cells.

One-step green synthesis of collagen nanoparticles using Ulva fasciata, network pharmacology and functional enrichment analysis in hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Collagen nanoparticles (collagen-NPs) possess numerous applications owing to their minimal immunogenicity, non-toxic nature, excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility. This study presents a novel sustainable technique for one-step green synthesis of hydrolyzed fish collagen-NPs (HFC-NPs) using a hot-water extract of Ulva fasciata biomass. HFC-NPs were characterized using TEM, FTIR, XRD, ζ-potential analyses, etc. TEM revealed hollow spherical nanoparticles exhibiting an average diameter of 27.25 nm. Face-centered central composite design was employed to maximize the HFC-NPs yield. The highest HFC-NPs yield was 13.05 mg/mL, which was achieved when the initial pH level was 7, incubation period was 72 h, and HFC concentration was 15 mg/mL. Thereafter, the possibility of using HFC-NPs as a biosafe drug carrier for doxorubicin (DOX) was tested in-vitro. Interestingly, both HFC-NPs and DOX-loaded HFC-NPs showed anticancer activity against hepatocellular carcinoma 'HCC'. In silico protein-protein interaction (PPI), network pharmacology, and functional pathway enrichment analysis of the common predicted HFC and HCC core targets suggested the involvement of PI3K-Akt, JAK-STAT, TNF, and/or Toll-like receptor signaling pathways in the HFC anti-HCC effect. In conclusion, our in vitro and in silico analyses demonstrated the HFC-NPs therapeutic efficacy against HCC, reflecting their promising potential in the development of novel anticancer drugs for HCC treatment.

Synthesis and Characterization of Acacia-Stabilized Doxorubicin-Loaded Gold Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Therapy

The targeted delivery of drugs is vital in breast cancer treatment due to its ability to produce long-lasting therapeutic effects with minimal side effects. This study reports the successful development of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX)-loaded colloidal gold nanoparticles stabilized with acacia gum (AG). Optimization studies varied AG concentrations (0.25% to 3% w/v) to determine optimal conditions for nanoparticle synthesis. The resulting acacia stabilized gold nanoparticles (AGNPs) were characterized using various techniques including high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). In vitro drug release studies demonstrated a higher release rate of DOX in sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.0) compared to phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4), suggesting an enhanced therapeutic efficacy in acidic tumor environments. Cytotoxicity of DOX-AGNPs and free DOX was assessed in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). The DOX-AGNPs exhibited significantly greater cytotoxicity, indicating enhanced efficacy in targeting cancer cells. This enhancement suggests that adsorbing DOX on the surface of gold nanoparticles can improve drug delivery and effectiveness, potentially reducing side effects compared to pure DOX and traditional delivery methods. Stability tests conducted over six months at 25±1°C showed significant changes in particle size and PDI, suggesting limited stability under these conditions. Overall, the acacia-stabilized gold nanoparticles synthesized in this study exhibit promising characteristics for drug delivery applications, particularly in cancer therapy, with effective drug loading, controlled release, and favorable physicochemical properties.

Valorization and repurposing of seafood waste to next-generation carbon nanofertilizers

The surge in population growth, urbanization, and shifts in food consumption patterns have resulted in a rise in the global production of organic waste. This waste material must be repurposed and effectively managed to minimize environmental footprints. The generation of abundant biowaste, especially from marine sources, may have detrimental impacts on the environment and human health if left untreated. In recent years, substantial efforts have been made to valorize seafood waste, contributing significantly to the sustainability of the blue economy through the repurposing of marine discards. Seafood waste can be transformed into different by-products which can be applied as soil amendment to enhance soil quality and health, demonstrating a holistic approach to repurposing and waste utilization. The extraction of bioactive metabolites from these waste materials has opened avenues for developing nanofertilizers. This intersection of waste valorization and nanotechnology is pertinent in the context of sustainable agriculture. While conventional fertilizers improve soil fertility with significant leaching and gaseous losses, the advent of nanofertilizers introduces a paradigm shift with their targeted and controlled delivery mechanisms, rendering them significantly more efficient in resource utilization and mitigation of environmental crises. This review delves into the global issue of seafood waste accumulation, offering an overview of various methods for repurposing. The primary aim of this review is to bring into limelight the recent efforts in developing a portfolio of carbon-based nanofertilizers derived from organic waste, replacing previous valorization methods due to their sustainability, efficiency, and eco-friendliness. There are immense opportunities for future work in this direction by exploring innovative nanoengineering approach owing to the potential of carbon nanofertilizers in enhancing the production of value-added products and reduction of environmental pollution.

Nanotechnology-based approaches for antibacterial therapy

The technique of antimicrobial therapy action is to stop or slow the growth of bacteria that can kill people, animals, and crops. The most widely used antibacterial agents are antibiotics. Even though these antimicrobial medications are quite effective, there are still certain barriers or challenges in using them effectively. To solve these issues, new antimicrobial drug molecules that don't have side effects or resistance are needed. These days, antimicrobial drugs placed in nanosized vehicles, or nanomedicine, made of different metal and metallic oxides as well as of polymer, carbon or lipid-based may be used to address these issues with conventional therapy and delivery techniques. This review focuses on the importance of nanotechnology in antimicrobial therapy, nanoparticles (NPs) used in this therapy, their mode of action, and the recent advancement in nanotechnology for antimicrobial therapy.

Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: Preparation, Characterization, and Biomedical Applications - A Review

Over the last decade, biomedical nanomaterials have garnered significant attention due to their remarkable biological properties and diverse applications in biomedicine. Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are particularly notable for their wide range of medicinal uses, including antibacterial, anticancer, biosensing, cell imaging, and drug/gene delivery. Among these, zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs stand out for their versatility and effectiveness. Recently, ZnO NPs have become a primary material in various sectors, such as pharmaceutical, cosmetic, antimicrobials, construction, textile, and automotive industries. ZnO NPs can generate reactive oxygen species and induce cellular apoptosis, thus underpinning their potent anticancer and antibacterial properties. To meet the growing demand, numerous synthetic approaches have been developed to produce ZnO NPs. However, traditional manufacturing processes often involve significant economic and environmental costs, prompting a search for more sustainable alternatives. Intriguingly, biological synthesis methods utilizing plants, plant extracts, or microorganisms have emerged as ideal for producing ZnO NPs. These green production techniques offer numerous medicinal, economic, environmental, and health benefits. This review highlights the latest advancements in the green synthesis of ZnO NPs and their biomedical applications, showcasing their potential to revolutionize the field with eco-friendly and cost-effective solutions.

Investigating the sorption of Zinc-Oxide nanoparticles on Tire-wear particles and their toxic effects on Chlorella vulgaris: Insights from toxicological models and physiological analysis

This study investigated the interaction of Tire-wear particles (TWPs) with Zinc-Oxide nanoparticles (ZNPs) and studied their individual and combined toxic effects on Chlorella vulgaris in the co-presence of Humics. Physiological parameters, including growth, photosynthetic pigments, oxidative stress, and membrane damage, were analysed using Flow cytometry. Adsorption experiments exhibited that ZNPs were significantly absorbed by TWPs (qmax= 312.49 mg/g). A positive dose-response relation concerning inhibition in growth was observed in all treatment groups, and it was associated with reduced chlorophyll levels and damaged cell membranes. A negative impact of increased concentrations of TWPs and ZNPs was observed on anti-oxidant enzymes CAT and SOD; however, the impact was more severe when combined with exposure to both contaminants. Elevated concentrations of ZNPs and TWPs led to increased ROS production, lipid peroxidation and membrane damage, which could be contributing to the observed inhibition in growth. In the combined exposure groups, the Independent Action and the Abbott toxicity models revealed a synergistic effect on growth rates, which agreed with the Integrated Biomarker model results. The current study could enhance our understanding of the interaction between TWPs and metal nanoparticles in aquatic systems and offer novel understandings of the mechanisms underlying their combined toxic effects on microalgae.

Nanomaterials for stroke diagnosis and treatment

Nanomaterials and nanotechnology innovations possess unique physicochemical properties that present new opportunities in the realm of stroke detection, diagnosis, and treatment. This comprehensive review explores the utilization of nanomaterials in the diagnosis and treatment of strokes, encompassing recent advancements in computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic particle imaging (MPI), as well as groundbreaking applications of nanomaterials and bionanomaterials in drug delivery systems and brain tissue repair. Additionally, this review meticulously examines significant challenges such as biocompatibility toxicity and long-term safety, proposing potential strategies to surmount these obstacles. Moreover, this review delves into the application of nanomaterials to improve the clinical diagnosis of stroke patients, elucidates the potential of nanotechnology in post-stroke therapy, and identifies future research directions and potential clinical applications.

Toxicity, Antibacterial, Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and DNA Cleavage Effects of Dextran-Graft-Polyacrylamide/Zinc Oxide Nanosystems

Synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles-polymer nanocomposites is an emerging strategy in nanotechnology to improve targeted delivery and reduce the toxicity of nanoparticles. In this study, we report biological effects of previously described hybrid nanocomposites containing dextran-graft-polyacrylamide/zinc oxide nanoparticles (D-PAA/ZnO NPs) prepared from zinc sulfate (D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-)) and zinc acetate (D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc)) focusing primarily on their antimicrobial activity. D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-) and D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc) nanosystems were tested in a complex way to assess their antioxidant activity (DPPH assay), antidiabetic potential (α-amylase inhibition), DNA cleavage activity, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm activity. In addition, the toxicity of D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-) and D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc) nanosystems against primary murine splenocytes was tested using MTT assay. The studied nanosystems inhibited E.coli growth. For all the investigated strains, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-) and D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc) were in the range of 8 mg/L-128 mg/L and 16 mg/L-128 mg/L, respectively. The nanocomposites demonstrated effective antibiofilm properties as 94.27% and 86.43%. The compounds showed good antioxidant, anti-α-amylase, and DNA cleavage activities. D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-) and D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc) nanosystems reduced cell viability and promoted cell death of primary murine spleen cells at concentrations higher than those that proved to be antibacterial indicating the presence of therapeutic window. D-PAA/ZnONPs(SO42-) and D-PAA/ZnONPs(-OAc) nanosystems show antioxidant, antidiabetic, DNA cleavage, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm activity against the background of good biocompatibility suggesting the presence of therapeutic potential, which should be further investigated in vivo.

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles: from green synthesis to clinical translation

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered significant attention in recent years due to their unique properties and various applications in different fields. NPs, including gold, silver, zinc oxide, copper, titanium, and magnesium oxide NPs, have attracted considerable interest. Green synthesis approaches, utilizing natural products, offer advantages such as sustainability and environmental friendliness. The theranostics applications of these NPs hold immense significance in the fields of medicine and diagnostics. The review explores intricate cellular uptake pathways, internalization dynamics, reactive oxygen species generation, and ensuing inflammatory responses, shedding light on the intricate mechanisms governing their behaviour at a molecular level. Intriguingly, biogenic metallic NPs exhibit a wide array of applications in medicine, including but not limited to anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-plasmodial, antiviral properties and radical scavenging efficacy. Their potential in personalized medicine stands out, with a focus on tailoring treatments to individual patients based on these NPs' unique attributes and targeted delivery capabilities. The article culminates in emphasizing the role of biogenic metallic NPs in shaping the landscape of personalized medicine. Harnessing their unique properties for tailored therapeutics, diagnostics and targeted interventions, these NPs pave the way for a paradigm shift in healthcare, promising enhanced efficacy and reduced adverse effects.

Smart Nanocomposite Hydrogels as Next-Generation Therapeutic and Diagnostic Solutions

Stimuli-responsive nanocomposite gels combine the unique properties of hydrogels with those of nanoparticles, thus avoiding the suboptimal results of single components and creating versatile, multi-functional platforms for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. These hybrid materials are engineered to respond to various internal and external stimuli, such as temperature, pH, light, magnetic fields, and enzymatic activity, allowing precise control over drug release, tissue regeneration, and biosensing. Their responsiveness to environmental cues permits personalized medicine approaches, providing dynamic control over therapeutic interventions and real-time diagnostic capabilities. This review explores recent advances in stimuli-responsive hybrid gels' synthesis and application, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and diagnostics. Overall, these platforms have significant clinical potential, and future research is expected to lead to unique solutions to address unmet medical needs.

Potential role of metal nanoparticles in treatment of peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis

Peri-implantitis (PI), a pathological condition associated with plaque, affects the tissues around dental implants. In addition, peri-implant mucositis (PIM) is a precursor to the destructive inflammatory PI and is an inflammation of the soft tissues surrounding the dental implant. It is challenging to eradicate and regulate the PI treatment due to its limited effectiveness. Currently, there is a significant interest in the development and research of additional biocompatible materials to prevent the failure of dental implants. Nanotechnology has the potential to address or develop solutions to the significant challenge of implant failure caused by cytotoxicity and biocompatibility in dentistry. Nanoparticles (NPs) may be used as carriers for the release of medicines, as well as to make implant coatings and supply appropriate materials for implant construction. Furthermore, the bioactivity and therapeutic efficacy of metal NPs in peri-implant diseases (PID) are substantiated by a plethora of in vitro and in vivo studies. Furthermore, the use of silver (Ag), gold (Au), zinc oxide, titanium oxide (TiO2), copper (Cu), and iron oxide NPs as a cure for dental implant infections brought on by bacteria that have become resistant to several medications is the subject of recent dentistry research. Because of their unique shape-dependent features, which enhance bio-physio-chemical functionalization, antibacterial activity, and biocompatibility, metal NPs are employed in dental implants. This study attempted to provide an overview of the application of metal and metal oxide NPs to control and increase the success rate of implants while focusing on the antimicrobial properties of these NPs in the treatment of PID, including PIM and PI. Additionally, the study reviewed the potential benefits and drawbacks of using metal NPs in clinical settings for managing PID, with the goal of advancing future treatment strategies for these conditions.

Plant Extracellular Nanovesicle-Loaded Hydrogel for Topical Antibacterial Wound Healing In Vivo

Bacterial infections impede wound healing and pose significant challenges in clinical care. There is an immediate need for safe and targeted antivirulence agents to fight bacterial infections effectively. In this regard, bioderived nanovesicles have shown significant promise. This work demonstrated significant antibacterial properties of extracellular nanovesicles derived from plant (mint) leaf juice (MENV). A hydrogel (HG) was developed using oxidized alginate and chitosan and loaded with antibacterial MENVs (MENV-HG). This formulation was investigated for topical HG dressings to treat Gram-positive Micrococcus luteus and Gram-negative Escherichia coli-invasive wounds. The developed HG was injectable, biocompatible (>95% cell was viable), nonhemolytic (<5% hemolytic capacity), self-healing and exhibited strong physical and mechanical interactions with the bacteria cells (MENV-HG-treated bacteria were significantly more elastic compared to the control in both M. luteus (1.01 ± 0.3 MPa, p < 0.005 vs 5.03 ± 2.6) and E. coli (5.81 ± 2.1 MPa vs 10.81 ± 3.8, p < 0.005). MENV-HG was topically applied on wounds with a slow MENV release profile, ensuring effective healing. These in vivo results demonstrated decreased inflammation and expedited healing within 10 days of treatment (wound area closure was 99% with MENV-HG treatment and 87% for control). Taken together, MENV-HGs have the potential for a scalable and sustainable wound dressing strategy that works satisfactorily for bacteria-infected wound healing and to be validated in clinical trials.

Metal-based nanomaterials in aquatic environments: What do we know so far about their ecotoxicity?

The wide range of applications of nanomaterials (NM) in different fields has led to both uncontrolled production and release into environmental compartments, such as aquatic systems, where final disposal occurs. Some efforts have been made to estimate their concentrations in environmental matrices; however, little is known about the actual effects of environmental NM concentrations on biota. The aims of the present review are to (i) expose the state of the art of the most applied NM and their actual concentrations regarding how much is being released to the aquatic environment and which are the predicted ones; (ii) analyze the current literature to elucidate if the aforementioned conditions were proven to cause deleterious effects on the associated organisms; and (iii) identify gaps in the knowledge regarding whether the actual NM concentrations are harmful to aquatic biota. These novel materials are expected to being released into the environment in the range of hundreds to thousands of tons per year, with Si- and Ti-based NM being the two most important. The estimated environmental NM concentrations are in the low range of ng to µg/L, except for Ti-based ones, which concentrations reach values on the order of mg/L. Empirical information regarding the ecotoxicity of environmental NM concentrations mainly focused on metal-based NM, however, it resulted poor and unbalanced in terms of materials and test species. Given its high predicted environmental concentration in comparison with the others, the ecotoxicity of Ti-based NM has been well assessed in algae and fish, while little is known regarding other NM types. While only a few marine species were addressed, the freshwater species Daphnia magna and Danio rerio accounted for the majority of studies on invertebrate and fish groups, respectively. Most of the reported responses are related to oxidative stress. Overall, we consider that invertebrate groups are the most vulnerable, with emphasis on microcrustaceans, as environmentally realistic metal-based NM concentration even caused mortality in some species. In the case of fish, we assumed that environmental concentrations of Ti-based NM represent a growing concern and threat; however, further studies should be carried out by employing other kinds of NM. Furthermore, more ecotoxicological information is needed in the case of carbon-based NM, as they are expected to considerably increase in terms of released amounts and applications in the near future.

An insight into impact of nanomaterials toxicity on human health

In recent years, advances in nanotechnology have significantly influenced electronics manufacturing, industrial processes, and medical research. Various industries have seen a surge in the use of nanomaterials. However, several researchers have raised the alarm about the toxicological nature of nanomaterials, which appear to be quite different from their crude forms. This altered nature can be attributed to their unique physicochemical profile. They can adversely affect human health and the environment. Nanomaterials that have been released into the environment tend to accumulate over time and can cause a significant impact on the ecosystem and organisms with adverse health effects. Increased use of nanoparticles has led to increased human exposure in their daily lives, making them more vulnerable to nanoparticle toxicity. Because of their small size, nanomaterials can readily cross biological membranes and enter cells, tissues, and organs. Therefore, the effect of nanomaterials on the human environment is of particular concern. The toxicological effects of nanomaterials and their mechanisms of action are being researched worldwide. Technological advances also support monitoring new nanomaterials marketed for industrial and household purposes. It is a challenging area because of the exceptional physicochemical properties of nanomaterials. This updated review focuses on the diverse toxicological perspective of nanomaterials. We have discussed the use of different types of nanoparticles and their physiochemical properties responsible for toxicity, routes of exposure, bio-distribution, and mechanism of toxicity. The review also includes various in vivo and in vitro methods of assessing the toxicity of nanomaterials. Finally, this review will provide a detailed insight into nano material-induced toxicological response, which can be beneficial in designing safe and effective nanoparticles.

Silk Fibroin Film Decorated with Ultralow FeCo Content by Sputtering Deposition Results in a Flexible and Robust Biomaterial for Magnetic Actuation

Magnetically responsive soft biomaterials are at the forefront of bioengineering and biorobotics. We have created a magnetic hybrid material by coupling silk fibroin─i.e., a natural biopolymer with an optimal combination of biocompatibility and mechanical robustness─with the FeCo alloy, the ferromagnetic material with the highest saturation magnetization. The material is in the form of a 6 μm-thick silk fibroin film, coated with a FeCo layer (nominal thickness: 10 nm) grown by magnetron sputtering deposition. The sputtering deposition technique is versatile and eco-friendly and proves effective for growing the magnetic layer on the biopolymer substrate, also allowing one to select the area to be decorated. The hybrid material is biocompatible, lightweight, flexible, robust, and water-resistant. Electrical, structural, mechanical, and magnetic characterization of the material, both as-prepared and after being soaked in water, have provided information on the adhesion between the silk fibroin substrate and the FeCo layer and on the state of internal mechanical stresses. The hybrid film exhibits a high magnetic bending response under a magnetic field gradient, thanks to an ultralow fraction of the FeCo component (less than 0.1 vol %, i.e., well below 1 wt %). This reduces the risk of adverse health effects and makes the material suitable for bioactuation applications.

Energy-Efficient and Effective MCF-7 Cell Ablation and Electrothermal Therapy Enabled by M13-WS2-PEG Nanostructures

Thermal agents (TAs) have exhibited promise in clinical tests when utilized in cancer thermal therapy (TT). While rapid degradation of TAs may address safety concerns, it limits the thermal stability required for effective treatment. TAs, which possess exceptional thermal stability, experience gradual deterioration. There are few approaches that effectively address the trade-off between improving thermal stability and simultaneously boosting material deterioration. Here, we control the thermal character of tungsten disulfide (WS2)-based 2D materials by utilizing an M13 phage through Joule heating (the M13-WS2-PEG nanostructures were generated and termed a tripartite (T) nanostructure), and developed a T nanostructure-driven TT platform (we called it T-TT) for efficient thermal ablation of clinically relevant MCF-7 cells. A relative cell viability of ~59% was achieved, as well as onset time of degradation of ~0.5 week. The T-TT platform also discloses an energy density of 5.9 J/mL. Furthermore, the phage-conjugated WS2 can be utilized to achieve ultrasound imaging for disease monitoring. Therefore, this research not only presents a thermal agent that overcomes TA limitations, but also demonstrates a practical application of WS2-type material system in ultra-energy efficient and effective cancer therapy.

Nanocarrier design for pathogen-inspired innate immune agonist delivery

In complex diseases such as cancer, modulating cytokine signatures of disease using innate immune agonists holds therapeutic promise. Novel multi-agonist treatments offer tunable control of the immune system because they are uniquely pathogen inspired, eliciting robust antitumor responses by promoting synergistic cytokine responses. However, the chief strategic hurdle is ensuring multi-agonist delivery to the same target cells, highlighting the importance of using nanomaterial-based carriers. Here, we place nanocarriers in center stage and review the delivery hurdles related to the varying extra- and intracellular localizations of innate immune receptors. We discuss a range of nanomaterials used for multi-agonist delivery, highlighting their respective benefits and drawbacks. Our overarching stance is that rational nanocarrier design is crucial for developing pathogen-inspired multi-agonist immunotherapies.

Therapeutic Potential of Silver Nitroprusside Nanoparticles for Melanoma

Melanoma has gained considerable attention due to its high mortality and morbidity rate worldwide. The currently available treatment options are associated with several limitations such as nonspecificity, drug resistance, easy clearance, low efficacy, toxicity-related issues, etc. To this end, nanotechnology has garnered significant attention for the treatment of melanoma. In the present manuscript, we have demonstrated the in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity of silver nitroprusside nanoparticles (abbreviated as AgNNPs) against melanoma. The AgNNPs exhibit cytotoxicity against B16F10 cells, which has been investigated by several in vitro experiments including [methyl 3H]-thymidine incorporation assay, cell cycle and apoptosis analysis by flow cytometry, and ROS generation through DCFDA, DHE, and DAF2A reagents. Further, the internalization of nanoparticles was determined by ICPOES analysis, while their colocalization was analyzed by confocal microscopy. Additionally, JC-1 staining is performed to examine mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Cytoskeleton integrity was observed by phalloidin staining. Expression of different markers (Ki-67, cytochrome c, and E-cadherin) was checked using an immunofluorescence assay. The in vivo therapeutic efficacy of AgNNPs has been validated in the melanoma model established by inoculating B16F10 cells into the dorsal right abdomen of C57BL/6J mice. The intraperitoneal administration of AgNNPs reduced melanoma growth and increased the survivability of tumor-bearing mice. The in vivo immunofluorescence studies (Ki-67, CD31, and E-cadherin) and TUNEL assay support the inhibitory and apoptotic nature of AgNNPs toward melanoma, respectively. Furthermore, the various signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in anticancer activity are evaluated by Western blot analysis. These findings altogether demonstrate the promising anticancer potential of AgNNPs toward melanoma.

Gold nanostructures in melanoma: Advances in treatment, diagnosis, and theranostic applications

Melanoma, a lethal form of skin cancer, poses a significant challenge in oncology due to its aggressive nature and high mortality rates. Gold nanostructures, including gold nanoparticles (GNPs), offer myriad opportunities in melanoma therapy and imaging due to their facile synthesis and functionalization, robust stability, tunable physicochemical and optical properties, and biocompatibility. This review explores the emerging role of gold nanostructures and their composites in revolutionizing melanoma treatment paradigms, bridging the gap between nanotechnology and clinical oncology, and offering insights for researchers, clinicians, and stakeholders. It begins by elucidating the potential of nanotechnology-driven approaches in cancer therapy, highlighting the unique physicochemical properties and versatility of GNPs in biomedical applications. Various therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, targeted drug delivery, gene delivery, and nanovaccines, are discussed in detail, along with insights from ongoing clinical trials. In addition, the utility of GNPs in melanoma imaging and theranostics is explored, showcasing their potential in diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and personalized medicine. Furthermore, safety considerations and potential toxicities associated with GNPs are addressed, underscoring the importance of comprehensive risk assessment in clinical translation. Finally, the review concludes by discussing current challenges and future directions, emphasizing the need for innovative strategies to maximize the clinical impact of GNPs in melanoma therapy.

Small Scale, Big Impact: Nanotechnology-Enhanced Drug Delivery for Brain Diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases, ranging from brain cancers to neurodegenerative disorders like dementia and acute conditions such as strokes, have been heavily burdening healthcare and have a direct impact on patient quality of life. A significant hurdle in developing effective treatments is the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a highly selective barrier that prevents most drugs from reaching the brain. The tight junctions and adherens junctions between the endothelial cells and various receptors expressed on the cells make the BBB form a nonfenestrated and highly selective structure that is crucial for brain homeostasis but complicates drug delivery. Nanotechnology offers a novel pathway to circumvent this barrier, with nanoparticles engineered to ferry drugs across the BBB, protect drugs from degradation, and deliver medications to the designated area. After years of development, nanoparticle optimization, including sizes, shapes, surface modifications, and targeting ligands, can enable nanomaterials tailored to specific brain drug delivery settings. Moreover, smart nano drug delivery systems can respond to endogenous and exogenous stimuli that control subsequent drug release. Here, we address the importance of the BBB in brain disease treatment, summarize different delivery routes for brain drug delivery, discuss the cutting-edge nanotechnology-based strategies for brain drug delivery, and further offer valuable insights into how these innovations in nanoparticle technology could revolutionize the treatment of CNS diseases, presenting a promising avenue for noninvasive, targeted therapeutic interventions.

Macromolecular Nano-Assemblies for Enhancing the Effect of Oxygen-Dependent Photodynamic Therapy Against Hypoxic Tumors

In oxygen (O2)-dependent photodynamic therapy (PDT), photosensitizers absorb light energy, which is then transferred to ambient O2 and subsequently generates cytotoxic singlet oxygen (1O2). Therefore, the availability of O2 and the utilization efficiency of generated 1O2 are two significant factors that influence the effectiveness of PDT. However, tumor microenvironments (TMEs) characterized by hypoxia and limited utilization efficiency of 1O2 resulting from its short half-life and short diffusion distance significantly restrict the applicability of PDT for hypoxic tumors. To address these challenges, numerous macromolecular nano-assemblies (MNAs) have been designed to relieve hypoxia, utilize hypoxia or enhance the utilization efficiency of 1O2. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review on recent advancements achieved with MNAs in enhancing the effectiveness of O2-dependent PDT against hypoxic tumors.

Nanomaterial-Based Sensors for Coumarin Detection

Sensors are widely used owing to their advantages including excellent sensing performance, user-friendliness, portability, rapid response, high sensitivity, and specificity. Sensor technologies have been expanded rapidly in recent years to offer many applications in medicine, pharmaceuticals, the environment, food safety, and national security. Various nanomaterial-based sensors have been developed for their exciting features, such as a powerful absorption band in the visible region, excellent electrical conductivity, and good mechanical properties. Natural and synthetic coumarin derivatives are attracting attention in the development of functional polymers and polymeric networks for their unique biological, optical, and photochemical properties. They are the most abundant organic molecules in medicine because of their biological and pharmacological impacts. Furthermore, coumarin derivatives can modulate signaling pathways that affect various cellular processes. This review covers the discovery of coumarins and their derivatives, the integration of nanomaterial-based sensors, and recent advances in nanomaterial-based sensing for coumarins. This review also explains how sensors work, their types, their pros and cons, and sensor studies for coumarin detection in recent years.

Green Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles from Quercus Bark Extracts: Characterization and Functional Properties

Quercus species are utilized for their durable wood, providing sustenance for wildlife, conserving biodiversity, and contributing ecological, medicinal, and esthetic benefits to ecosystems and landscapes. In this study, we aimed to use the bark of three Quercus species (Q. dalechampi, Q. fraineto, and Q. petraea) for the synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles (AgNPs and AuNPs). The aqueous extracts from the bark of Quercus sp. acted both as reducing and stabilizing agent, facilitating the rapid synthesis of AuNPs (AuQD, AuQF, and AuQP) and AgNPs (AgQD, AgQF, and AgQP). The obtained nanoparticles were characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, TEM, DLS, and FTIR. Characterizations revealed that the nanoparticles exhibited a variety of shapes, such as polygonal, triangular, and spherical forms, with sizes ranging between 14 and 24 nm for AuNPs and 45-70 nm for AgNPs. The total phenolic content was assessed through spectroscopic methods, while several individual phenolic compounds were identified and quantified using UPLC-PDA. Furthermore, we assessed the antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal capacities of AuNPs, AgNPs, and raw extracts. The highest antioxidant activity was observed for raw extracts, followed by AgNPs and AuNPs, while the most potent antibacterial and antifungal activity was observed in AgQP. Moreover, cytotoxicity was examined in a human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT). The results indicated no cytotoxic effects for AuNPs, while AgNPs and the raw extracts exhibited cytotoxic effects after 48 h of incubation. This research underscores the multifaceted utility of Quercus bark extracts in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles and their subsequent bioactivity assessment, suggesting promising perspectives for their application in various fields while urging cautious consideration of their cytotoxic implications.

Emerging Applications of Nanoparticles in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains the most prevalent cancer among women worldwide, driving the urgent need for innovative approaches to diagnosis and treatment. This review highlights the pivotal role of nanoparticles in revolutionizing breast cancer management through advancements of interconnected approaches including targeted therapy, imaging, and personalized medicine. Nanoparticles, with their unique physicochemical properties, have shown significant promise in addressing current treatment limitations such as drug resistance and nonspecific systemic distribution. Applications range from enhancing drug delivery systems for targeted and sustained release to developing innovative diagnostic tools for early and precise detection of metastases. Moreover, the integration of nanoparticles into photothermal therapy and their synergistic use with existing treatments, such as immunotherapy, illustrate their transformative potential in cancer care. However, the journey towards clinical adoption is fraught with challenges, including the chemical feasibility, biodistribution, efficacy, safety concerns, scalability, and regulatory hurdles. This review delves into the current state of nanoparticle research, their applications in breast cancer therapy and diagnosis, and the obstacles that must be overcome for clinical integration.

Nanozymes for biomedical applications: Multi-metallic systems may improve activity but at the cost of higher toxicity?

Nanozymes are nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like activity with selected advantages over native enzymes such as simple synthesis, controllable activity, high stability, and low cost. These materials have been explored as surrogates to natural enzymes in biosensing, therapeutics, environmental protection, and many other fields. Among different nanozymes classes, metal- and metal oxide-based nanozymes are the most widely studied. In recent years, bi- and tri-metallic nanomaterials have emerged often showing improved nanozyme activity, some of which even possess multifunctional enzyme-like activity. Taking this concept even further, high-entropy nanomaterials, that is, complex multicomponent alloys and ceramics like oxides, may potentially enhance activity even further. However, the addition of various elements to increase catalytic activity may come at the cost of increased toxicity. Since many nanozyme compositions are currently being explored for in vivo biomedical applications, such as cancer therapeutics, toxicity considerations in relation to nanozyme application in biomedicine are of vital importance for translation. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials Diagnostic Tools > Diagnostic Nanodevices.

Evaluation of the immunotoxicity potential of nanomaterials using THP-1 cells

With the expansion of nanomaterials (NMs) usage, concerns about their toxicity are increasing, and the wide variety of NMs makes it difficult to assess their toxicity. Therefore, the development of a high-throughput, accurate, and certified method to evaluate the immunotoxicity of NMs is required. In this study, we assessed the immunotoxicity potential of various NMs, such as nanoparticles of silver, silica, and titanium dioxide, using the human Cell Line Activation Test (h-CLAT) at the cellular level. After exposure to silver nanoparticle dispersions, the expression levels of CD86 and CD54 increased, suggesting the activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by silver nanoparticles. Quantification of silver ions eluted from silver nanoparticles and the activation of APCs by silver ions suggested that it was due to the release of silver ions. Silica nanoparticles also increased the expression of CD86 and/or CD54, and their activation ability correlated with the synthesis methods and hydrodynamic diameters. The ability of titanium dioxide to activate APCs differed depending on the crystal type and hydrodynamic diameter. These results suggest a potential method to evaluate the immunotoxicity potential of various NMs based on their ability to activate APCs using human monocytic THP-1 cells. This method will be valuable in assessing the immunotoxicity potential and elucidating the immunotoxic mechanisms of NMs.

Autophagy and mitophagy as potential therapeutic targets in diabetic heart condition: Harnessing the power of nanotheranostics

Autophagy and mitophagy pose unresolved challenges in understanding the pathology of diabetic heart condition (DHC), which encompasses a complex range of cardiovascular issues linked to diabetes and associated cardiomyopathies. Despite significant progress in reducing mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), heart failure remains a major cause of increased morbidity among diabetic patients. These cellular processes are essential for maintaining cellular balance and removing damaged or dysfunctional components, and their involvement in the development of diabetic heart disease makes them attractive targets for diagnosis and treatment. While a variety of conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are available, DHC continues to present a significant challenge. Point-of-care diagnostics, supported by nanobiosensing techniques, offer a promising alternative for these complex scenarios. Although conventional medications have been widely used in DHC patients, they raise several concerns regarding various physiological aspects. Modern medicine places great emphasis on the application of nanotechnology to target autophagy and mitophagy in DHC, offering a promising approach to deliver drugs beyond the limitations of traditional therapies. This article aims to explore the potential connections between autophagy, mitophagy and DHC, while also discussing the promise of nanotechnology-based theranostic interventions that specifically target these molecular pathways.

Effects of dissolved organic matter on the environmental behavior and toxicity of metal nanomaterials: A review

Metal nanomaterials (MNMs) have been released into the environment during their usage in various products, and their environmental behaviors directly impact their toxicity. Numerous environmental factors potentially affect the behaviors and toxicity of MNMs with dissolved organic matter (DOM) playing the most essential role. Abundant facts showing contradictory results about the effects of DOM on MNMs, herein the occurrence of DOM on the environmental process change of MNMs such as dissolution, dispersion, aggregation, and surface transformation were summarized. We also reviewed the effects of MNMs on organisms and their mechanisms in the environment such as acute toxicity, oxidative stress, oxidative damage, growth inhibition, photosynthesis, reproductive toxicity, and malformation. The presence of DOM had the potential to reduce or enhance the toxicity of MNMs by altering the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, dissolution, stability, and electrostatic repulsion of MNMs. Furthermore, we summarized the factors that affected different toxicity including specific organisms, DOM concentration, DOM types, light conditions, detection time, and production methods of MNMs. However, the more detailed mechanism of interaction between DOM and MNMs needs further investigation.

Nanoparticles toxicity: an overview of its mechanism and plausible mitigation strategies

Over the last decade, nanoparticles have found great interest among scientists and researchers working in various fields within the realm of biomedicine including drug delivery, gene delivery, diagnostics, targeted therapy and biomarker mapping. While their physical and chemical properties are impressive, there is growing concern about the toxicological potential of nanoparticles and possible adverse health effects as enhanced exposure of biological systems to nanoparticles may result in toxic effects leading to serious contraindications. Toxicity associated with nanoparticles (nanotoxicity) may include the undesired response of several physiological mechanisms including the distressing of cells by external and internal interaction with nanoparticles. However, comprehensive knowledge of nanotoxicity mechanisms and mitigation strategies may be useful to overcome the hazardous situation while treating diseases with therapeutic nanoparticles. With the same objectives, this review discusses various mechanisms of nanotoxicity and provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on the impact of nanotoxicity on biological control systems and organs including liver, brain, kidneys and lungs. An attempt also been made to present various approaches of scientific research and strategies that could be useful to overcome the effect of nanotoxicity during the development of nanoparticle-based systems including coating, doping, grafting, ligation and addition of antioxidants.

Eradication of Klebsiella pneumoniae pulmonary infection by silver oxytetracycline nano-structure

Targeted bactericidal nanosystems hold significant promise to improve the efficacy of existing antimicrobials for treatment of severe bacterial infections by minimizing the side effects and lowering the risk of antibiotic resistance development. In this work, Silver Oxytetracycline Nano-structure (Ag-OTC-Ns) was developed for selective and effective eradication of Klebsiella pneumoniae pulmonary infection. Ag-OTC-Ns were prepared by simple homogenization-ultrasonication method and were characterized by DLS, Zeta potential, TEM and FT-IR. The antimicrobial activity of Ag-OTC-Ns was evaluated in vitro using broth micro-dilution technique and time-kill methods. Our study showed that MICs of AgNO3, OTC, AgNPs and Ag-OTC-Ns were 100, 100, 50 and 6.25 µg/ml, respectively. Ag-OTC-Ns demonstrated higher bactericidal efficacy against the targeted Klebsiella pneumoniae at 12.5 µg/ml compared to the free Oxytetracycline, AgNO3 and AgNPs. In vivo results confirmed that, Ag-OTC-Ns could significantly eradicate K. pneumoniae from mice lung in compare with free Oxytetracycline, AgNO3 and AgNPs. In addition, Ag-OTC-Ns could effectually diminish the inflammatory biomarkers levels of Interferon Gamma and IL-12, and as a result it could effectively lower lung damage in K. pneumoniae infected mice. Ag-OTC-Ns has no significant toxicity on tested mice along the experimental period, there was no sign of behavioral abnormality in the surviving mice indicating that the Ag-OTC-Ns is safe at the used concentration. Furthermore, capability of 5 kGy Gamma ray to sterilize Ag-OTC-Ns solution without affecting it stability was proven.

Advances in the Optimization of Fe Nanoparticles: Unlocking Antifungal Properties for Biomedical Applications

In recent years, nanotechnology has achieved a remarkable status in shaping the future of biological applications, especially in combating fungal diseases. Owing to excellence in nanotechnology, iron nanoparticles (Fe NPs) have gained enormous attention in recent years. In this review, we have provided a comprehensive overview of Fe NPs covering key synthesis approaches and underlying working principles, the factors that influence their properties, essential characterization techniques, and the optimization of their antifungal potential. In addition, the diverse kinds of Fe NP delivery platforms that command highly effective release, with fewer toxic effects on patients, are of great significance in the medical field. The issues of biocompatibility, toxicity profiles, and applications of optimized Fe NPs in the field of biomedicine have also been described because these are the most significant factors determining their inclusion in clinical use. Besides this, the difficulties and regulations that exist in the transition from laboratory to experimental clinical studies (toxicity, specific standards, and safety concerns) of Fe NPs-based antifungal agents have been also summarized.

Inhibition of the Naja naja venom toxicity by polymeric nanoparticles loaded with Leucas aspera methanolic extract

Background

Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Developing effective treatments can make a significant contribution to global health efforts and public health initiatives. To reduce mortality due to snakebite, there is an immediate need to explore novel and effective treatment methodologies. In that context, nanoparticle-based drug delivery is gaining a lot of attention. Hydrophilic nanoparticles are suitable for the delivery of therapeutic peptides, proteins, and antigens.

Methods

The present investigation is aimed at evaluating the anti-ophidian potential of the methanolic extract of the ethno-medicinal herb Leucas aspera (Willd.) loaded within chitosan nanoparticles (CNP-LA), against the Indian cobra (Naja naja) venom enzymes. For this purpose, nanoparticles were prepared using the ionic gelation method to enhance the efficacy of the extract. The physicochemical and structural features of nanoparticles were investigated using dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform Infrared (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques.

Results

It was found that CNP-LA has an average size of 260 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.132 (PDI) and zeta potential of 34.7 mV, with an encapsulation efficiency of 92.46%. The in vitro release study was performed at pH 5.0 and 7.4. Furthermore, in vitro studies indicated that CNP-LA inhibited the phospholipase A2, hemolytic, and caseinolytic activities of Naja naja venom with the percentage inhibition of 92.5%, 83.9%, and 94.5%, respectively.

Conclusion

This is the first report on the application of herbal methanolic extract loaded within chitosan nanoparticles for neutralizing snake venom enzymes with increased efficiency.

Harnessing the potential of nanoengineered siRNAs carriers for target responsive glioma therapy: Recent progress and future opportunities

Past scientific testimonials in the field of glioma research, the deadliest tumor among all brain cancer types with the life span of 10-15 months after diagnosis is considered as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Even though the availability of treatment options such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, are unable to completely cure GBM due to tumor microenvironment complexity, intrinsic cellular signalling, and genetic mutations which are involved in chemoresistance. The blood-brain barrier is accountable for restricting drugs entry at the tumor location and related biological challenges like endocytic degradation, short systemic circulation, and insufficient cellular penetration lead to tumor aggression and progression. The above stated challenges can be better mitigated by small interfering RNAs (siRNA) by knockdown genes responsible for tumor progression and resistance. However, siRNA encounters with challenges like inefficient cellular transfection, short circulation time, endogenous degradation, and off-target effects. The novel functionalized nanocarrier approach in conjunction with biological and chemical modification offers an intriguing potential to address challenges associated with the naked siRNA and efficiently silence STAT3, coffilin-1, EGFR, VEGF, SMO, MGMT, HAO-1, GPX-4, TfR, LDLR and galectin-1 genes in GBM tumor. This review highlights the nanoengineered siRNA carriers, their recent advancements, future perspectives, and strategies to overcome the systemic siRNA delivery challenges for glioma treatment.

Applications of peptides in nanosystems for diagnosing and managing bacterial sepsis

Sepsis represents a critical medical condition stemming from an imbalanced host immune response to infections, which is linked to a significant burden of disease. Despite substantial efforts in laboratory and clinical research, sepsis remains a prominent contributor to mortality worldwide. Nanotechnology presents innovative opportunities for the advancement of sepsis diagnosis and treatment. Due to their unique properties, including diversity, ease of synthesis, biocompatibility, high specificity, and excellent pharmacological efficacy, peptides hold great potential as part of nanotechnology approaches against sepsis. Herein, we present a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the applications of peptides in nanosystems for combating sepsis, with the potential to expedite diagnosis and enhance management outcomes. Firstly, sepsis pathophysiology, antisepsis drug targets, current modalities in management and diagnosis with their limitations, and the potential of peptides to advance the diagnosis and management of sepsis have been adequately addressed. The applications have been organized into diagnostic or managing applications, with the last one being further sub-organized into nano-delivered bioactive peptides with antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activity, peptides as targeting moieties on the surface of nanosystems against sepsis, and peptides as nanocarriers for antisepsis agents. The studies have been grouped thematically and discussed, emphasizing the constructed nanosystem, physicochemical properties, and peptide-imparted enhancement in diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy. The strengths, limitations, and research gaps in each section have been elaborated. Finally, current challenges and potential future paths to enhance the use of peptides in nanosystems for combating sepsis have been deliberately spotlighted. This review reaffirms peptides' potential as promising biomaterials within nanotechnology strategies aimed at improving sepsis diagnosis and management.

Tackling myelin deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders using drug delivery systems

Interest in myelin and its roles in almost all brain functions has been greatly increasing in recent years, leading to countless new studies on myelination, as a dominant process in the development of cognitive functions. Here, we explore the unique role myelin plays in the central nervous system and specifically discuss the results of altered myelination in neurodevelopmental disorders. We present parallel developmental trajectories involving myelination that correlate with the onset of cognitive impairment in neurodevelopmental disorders and discuss the key challenges in the treatment of these chronic disorders. Recent developments in drug repurposing and nano/micro particle-based therapies are reviewed as a possible pathway to circumvent some of the main hurdles associated with early intervention, including patient's adherence and compliance, side effects, relapse, and faster route to possible treatment of these disorders. The strategy of drug encapsulation overcomes drug solubility and metabolism, with the possibility of drug targeting to a specific compartment, reducing side effects upon systemic administration.

The distribution, fate, and environmental impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems

Nanomaterials in the food industry are used as food additives, and the main function of these food additives is to improve food qualities including texture, flavor, color, consistency, preservation, and nutrient bioavailability. This review aims to provide an overview of the distribution, fate, and environmental and health impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the major nanomaterials in food additives include titanium dioxide, silver, gold, silicon dioxide, iron oxide, and zinc oxide. Ingestion of food products containing food additive nanomaterials via dietary intake is considered to be one of the major pathways of human exposure to nanomaterials. Food additive nanomaterials reach the terrestrial and aquatic environments directly through the disposal of food wastes in landfills and the application of food waste-derived soil amendments. A significant amount of ingested food additive nanomaterials (> 90 %) is excreted, and these nanomaterials are not efficiently removed in the wastewater system, thereby reaching the environment indirectly through the disposal of recycled water and sewage sludge in agricultural land. Food additive nanomaterials undergo various transformation and reaction processes, such as adsorption, aggregation-sedimentation, desorption, degradation, dissolution, and bio-mediated reactions in the environment. These processes significantly impact the transport and bioavailability of nanomaterials as well as their behaviour and fate in the environment. These nanomaterials are toxic to soil and aquatic organisms, and reach the food chain through plant uptake and animal transfer. The environmental and health risks of food additive nanomaterials can be overcome by eliminating their emission through recycled water and sewage sludge.

Design consideration of phthalocyanines as sensitizers for enhanced sono-photodynamic combinatorial therapy of cancer

Cancer remains one of the diseases with the highest incidence and mortality globally. Conventional treatment modalities have demonstrated threatening drawbacks including invasiveness, non-controllability, and development of resistance for some, including chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery. Sono-photodynamic combinatorial therapy (SPDT) has been developed as an alternative treatment modality which offers a non-invasive and controllable therapeutic approach. SPDT combines the mechanism of action of sonodynamic therapy (SDT), which uses ultrasound, and photodynamic therapy (PDT), which uses light, to activate a sensitizer and initiate cancer eradication. The use of phthalocyanines (Pcs) as sensitizers for SPDT is gaining interest owing to their ability to induce intracellular oxidative stress and initiate toxicity under SDT and PDT. This review discusses some of the structural prerequisites of Pcs which may influence their overall SPDT activities in cancer therapy.

Copper oxide nanoparticles impairs oocyte meiosis maturation by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

Copper oxides nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are widely used for a variety of industrial and life science applications. In addition to cause neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, CuO NPs have also been reported to adversely affect the reproductive system in animals; However, little is known about the effects and potential mechanism of CuO NPs exposure on oocyte quality, especially oocyte maturation. In the present study, we reported that CuO NPs exposure impairs the oocyte maturation by disrupting meiotic spindle assembly and chromosome alignment, as well as kinetochore-microtubule attachment. In addition, CuO NPs exposure also affects the acetylation level of α-tubulin in mice oocyte, which hence impairs microtubule dynamics and organization. Besides, CuO NPs exposure would result in the mis-localization of Juno and Ovastacin, which might be one of the critical factors leading to the failure of oocyte maturation. Finally, CuO NPs exposure impairs the mitochondrial distribution and induced high levels of ROS, which led to the accumulation of DNA damage and occurrence of apoptosis. In summary, our results indicated that CuO NPs exposure had potential toxic effects on female fertility and led to the poor oocyte quality in female mice.

EVQ-218: Characterization of High-Energy Nanoparticles that Measure up to NIST Standards

EVQ-218 is a high-energy produced nanoparticle (NP) with a method of manufacture that avoids chemical or biological synthesis. The patented single-step process generates stable, pure metal NPs directly into HPLC grade water. Laser ablation via the multiple cross laser system occurs at a rate that is in the region of dielectric breakdown, generating temperatures and pressures akin to those of diamond formation. The spherical particles from this method have an ultrastable shell structure that inhibits the hallmark ion emission that occurs in other nanosilver species. The resulting particle size distribution is so narrow that additional size refinement or stabilizing chemistries are not necessary. These properties make EVQ-218 an attractive clean and green alternative to traditional nanosilvers, particularly when factoring in shelf life, as EVQ-218 maintains (uniform) stability for years, while NIST standard materials degrade within a few weeks. EVQ-218 characterization and differentiation are timely as the rise of antimicrobial resistance has caused a surge of research on antimicrobial silver NPs. It has been widely established that the antimicrobial activity of nanosilver is due to ion emission. Unfortunately, metal ions can be quite toxic and prevent certain biomedical and consumer product applications. In an ever-changing regulatory landscape, there is increasing scrutiny to definitively characterize nanomaterials and assess their potential environmental/toxicological footprint. EVQ-218 was characterized alongside comparable NIST standard NPs, with particular interest in speciation and fate. Particle characterization studies reveal that EVQ-218 is nearly equivalent to NIST standard material with respect to particle morphology and uniformity. Dissolution and surface chemistry studies quickly differentiate EVQ-218 as the first stable, nonemissive, pure metal NP that is on par with NIST standards for ideal materials.

A critical review on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) based nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Designing, recent trends, challenges, and prospects

Nanomaterials (NMs) have garnered significant attention in recent decades due to their versatile applications in a wide range of fields. Thanks to their tiny size, enhanced surface modifications, impressive volume-to-surface area ratio, magnetic properties, and customized optical dispersion. NMs experienced an incredible upsurge in biomedical applications including diagnostics, therapeutics, and drug delivery. This minireview will focus on notable examples of NMs that tackle important issues, demonstrating various aspects such as their design, synthesis, morphology, classification, and use in cutting-edge applications. Furthermore, we have classified and outlined the distinctive characteristics of the advanced NMs as nanoscale particles and hybrid NMs. Meanwhile, we emphasize the incredible potential of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), a highly versatile group of NMs. These MOFs have gained recognition as promising candidates for a wide range of bio-applications, including bioimaging, biosensing, antiviral therapy, anticancer therapy, nanomedicines, theranostics, immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, gene therapy, and drug delivery. Although advanced NMs have shown great potential in the biomedical field, their use in clinical applications is still limited by issues such as stability, cytotoxicity, biocompatibility, and health concerns. This review article provides a thorough analysis offering valuable insights for researchers investigating to explore new design, development, and expansion opportunities. Remarkably, we ponder the prospects of NMs and nanocomposites in conjunction with current technology.

Intranasal administration enhances size-dependent pulmonary phagocytic uptake of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticles exhibit distinct behaviours within the body, depending on their physicochemical properties and administration routes. However, in vivo behaviour of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles, especially when administered nasally, remains unexplored; furthermore, there is a lack of comparative analysis of uptake efficiency among different administration routes. Therefore, here, we aimed to comprehensively investigate the real-time in vivo behaviour of PLGA nanoparticles across various administration routes. PLGA-NH2 nanoparticles of three sizes were synthesised using an oil-in-water single-emulsion method. We assessed their uptake by murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells using fluorescence microscopy. To enable real-time tracking, we conjugated p-SCN-Bn-deferoxamine to PLGA-NH2 nanoparticles and further radiolabelled them with 89Zr-oxalate before administration to mice via different routes. Nanoparticle internalisation by lung immune cells was monitored using fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis.

RESULTS

The nanoparticle sizes were 294 ± 2.1 (small), 522.5 ± 5.58 (intermediate), and 850 ± 18.52 nm (large). Fluorescent labelling did not significantly alter the nanoparticle size and charge. The level of uptake of small and large nanoparticles by RAW264.7 cells was similar, with phagocytosis inhibition primarily reducing the internalisation of large particles. Positron emission tomography revealed that intranasal delivery resulted in the highest and most targeted pulmonary uptake, whereas intravenous administration led to accumulation mainly in the liver and spleen. Nasal delivery of large nanoparticles resulted in enhanced uptake by myeloid immune cells relative to lymphoid cells, whereas dendritic cell uptake initially peaked but declined over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides valuable insights into advancing nanomedicine and drug delivery, with the potential for expanding the clinical applications of nanoparticles.

Induction of Oxidative Stress by Waterborne Copper and Arsenic in Larvae of European Seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.): A Comparison with Their Effects as Nanoparticles

The aim of this work was to compare the potential induction of oxidative stress and the antioxidant enzymatic response after a short-term waterborne exposure to copper (Cu) and arsenic (As) with that of the nanoparticles (NPs) of these elements (Cu-NPs and As-NPs) in fish larvae of the species Dicentrarchus labrax. Larvae were grouped in several tanks and exposed to different concentrations of contaminants (0 to 10 mg/L) for 24 or 96 h under laboratory conditions. Copper and arsenic concentrations were analysed in larval tissues using ICP-MS. A set of oxidative stress biomarkers, including the levels of hydroperoxides (HPs), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were assessed. The trace element concentrations (mg/kg d.w.) in larvae ranged as follows: 3.28-6.67 (Cu at 24 h) and 2.76-3.42 (Cu at 96 h); 3.03-8.31 (Cu-NPs at 24 h) and 2.50-4.86 (Cu-NPs at 96 h); 1.92-3.45 (As at 24 h) and 2.22-4.71 (As at 96 h); and 2.19-8.56 (As-NPs at 24 h) and 1.75-9.90 (As-NPs at 96 h). In Cu tests, the oxidative damage (ROOH levels) was induced from 0.1 mg/L at both exposure times, while for Cu-NPs, this damage was not observed until 1 mg/L, which was paralleled by concomitant increases in SOD activity. The CAT activity was also increased but at lower metal concentrations (0.01 mg/L and 0.1 mg/L for both chemical forms). No oxidative damage was observed for As or As-NPs after 24 h, but it was observed for As after 96 h of treatment with 0.01 mg/L. A decrease in SOD activity was observed for As after 24 h, but it turned out to be increased after 96 h. However, As-NPs did not alter SOD activity. The CAT activity was stimulated only at 96 h by As and at 24 h by As-NPs. Therefore, the two chemical forms of Cu exhibited a higher bioaccumulation and toxicity potential as compared to those of As. Importantly, the association of both Cu and As in NPs reduced the respective trace metal bioaccumulation, resulting also in a reduction in the toxic effects (mortality and biochemical). Furthermore, the assessment of oxidative stress-related biomarkers in seabass larvae appears to be a useful tool for biomonitoring environmental-occurring trace elements.

Immunomodulatory effects of copper nanoparticles against mitogen-stimulated rat splenic and thymic lymphocytes

In the present study, we have evaluated the effects of copper (Cu) nanoparticles (NPs) on the primary B-and T-lymphocytes proliferation, cytokine levels, and bio-distribution through in vitro, in vivo and ex-vivo studies to allow the possible exploitations of CuNPs in biomedical applications. CuNPs were characterized by UV-Visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). The proliferative response of lymphocytes was studied by 3H-thymidine incorporation assay and lymphocyte viability through trypan blue assay. The bio-distribution of CuNPs into lymphoid organs was examined by using ex-vivo imaging system. Cytokine levels in plasma of control and CuNPs treated animal groups were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method along with other biochemical analysis. CuNPs significantly suppressed the proliferation of primary splenic and thymic lymphocytes in a dose dependent manner. Ex-vivo imaging exhibited the distribution of CuNPs in spleen and thymus. Oral administration of CuNPs (2 mg and 10 mg/kg body weight) significantly inhibited the proliferation of splenic and thymic lymphocytes along with lowered cytokines levels (TNF-alpha and IL-2) on comparison with controls. The results indicated the significant inhibition of lymphocytes proliferative response and secretion of cytokines, thus unveiling the immunomodulatory effects of CuNPs.

Metal-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy: Exploring photodynamic therapy and its interplay with regulated cell death pathways

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) represents a non-invasive treatment strategy currently utilized in the clinical management of selected cancers and infections. This technique is predicated on the administration of a photosensitizer (PS) and subsequent irradiation with light of specific wavelengths, thereby generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) within targeted cells. The cellular effects of PDT are dependent on both the localization of the PS and the severity of ROS challenge, potentially leading to the stimulation of various cell death modalities. For many years, the concept of regulated cell death (RCD) triggered by photodynamic reactions predominantly encompassed apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy. However, in recent decades, further explorations have unveiled additional cell death modalities, such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, cuproptosis, pyroptosis, parthanatos, and immunogenic cell death (ICD), which helps to achieve tumor cell elimination. Recently, nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated substantial advantages over traditional PSs and become important components of PDT, due to their improved physicochemical properties, such as enhanced solubility and superior specificity for targeted cells. This review aims to summarize recent advancements in the applications of different metal-based NPs as PSs or delivery systems for optimized PDT in cancer treatment. Furthermore, it mechanistically highlights the contribution of RCD pathways during PDT with metal NPs and how these forms of cell death can improve specific PDT regimens in cancer therapy.

Metallic Nanocarriers for Therapeutic Peptides: Emerging Solutions Addressing the Delivery Challenges in Brain Ailments

Peptides and proteins have recently emerged as efficient therapeutic alternatives to conventional therapies. Although they emerged a few decades back, extensive exploration of various ailments or disorders began recently. The drawbacks of current chemotherapies and irradiation treatments, such as drug resistance and damage to healthy tissues, have enabled the rise of peptides in the quest for better prospects. The chemical tunability and smaller size make them easy to design selectively for target tissues. Other remarkable properties include antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, protection from hemorrhage stroke, and as therapeutic agents for gastric disorders and Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Despite these unmatched properties, their practical applicability is often hindered due to their weak susceptibility to enzymatic digestion, serum degradation, liver metabolism, kidney clearance, and immunogenic reactions. Several methods are adapted to increase the half-life of peptides, such as chemical modifications, fusing with Fc fragment, change in amino acid composition, and carrier-based delivery. Among these, nanocarrier-mediated encapsulation not only increases the half-life of the peptides in vivo but also aids in the targeted delivery. Despite its structural complexity, they also efficiently deliver therapeutic molecules across the blood-brain barrier. Here, in this review, we tried to emphasize the possible potentiality of metallic nanoparticles to be used as an efficient peptide delivery system against brain tumors and neurodegenerative disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In this review, we have emphasized the various therapeutic applications of peptides/proteins, including antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases. We also focused on these peptides' challenges under physiological conditions after administration. We highlighted the importance and potentiality of metallic nanocarriers in the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, increasing the stability and half-life of peptides, their efficiency in targeting the delivery, and their diagnostic applications.

Biosynthesis of Copper Oxide-Silver Nanoparticles from Ephedra Intermedia Extract and Study of Anticancer Effects in HepG2 Cell Line: Apoptosis-Related Genes Analysis and Nitric Oxide Level Investigations

Liver cancer treatment faces significant obstacles such as resistance, recurrence, metastasis, and toxicity to healthy cells. Biometallic nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. In this study, copper oxide-silver (Ag-doped CuO) NPs were prepared using a reduction method with Ephedra intermedia extract. The physicochemical properties of the NPs were evaluated using various techniques such as Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Additionally, this study has evaluated nitric oxide levels (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, Bax, Bcl2, P53, and Caspase3 genes expression, as well as cell viability within 24 hours in liver cancer cell line HepG2. FESEM and TEM imaging confirmed the nanostructural nature of the synthesized particles with sizes ranging from 31.27 to 88.98 nanometers. XRD analysis confirmed the crystal structure of the NPs. Comparative analysis showed that the IC50 values of the Ag-doped CuO NPs were significantly lower than that of the plant extracts. Molecular studies showed significantly increased expression of Bax, Caspase3, and P53 genes, inducing apoptosis in cancer cells, and downregulation of Bcl2 as a pro-metastasis gene. Additionally, the presence of Ag-doped CuO NPs significantly increased NO activity enzyme and ROS generation compared to the plant extract. The biosynthesized Ag-doped CuO NPs demonstrated the ability to induce apoptosis, increase ROS production, and enhance NO enzyme activity in HepG2 cancer cells, suggesting their potential as a therapeutic agent for liver cancer.