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Mannherz HG, Budde H, Jarkas M, Hassoun R, Malek-Chudzik N, Mazur AJ, Skuljec J, Pul R, Napirei M, Hamdani N. Reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton during the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Eur J Cell Biol 2024; 103:151407. [PMID: 38555846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2024.151407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
We analyzed actin cytoskeleton alterations during NET extrusion by neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells and human neutrophils in the absence of DNase1 containing serum to avoid chromatin degradation and microfilament disassembly. NET-formation by dHL-60 cells and neutrophils was induced by Ionomycin or phorbol-12-myristat-13-acetate (PMA). Subsequent staining with anti-actin and TRITC-phalloidin showed depolymerization of the cortical F-actin at spatially confined areas, the NET extrusion sites, effected by transient activation of the monooxygenase MICAL-1 supported by the G-actin binding proteins cofilin, profilin, thymosin ß4 and probably the F-actin fragmenting activity of gelsolin and/or its fragments, which also decorated the formed NETs. MICAL-1 itself appeared to be proteolyzed by neutrophil elastase possibly to confine its activity to the NET-extrusion area. The F-actin oxidization activity of MICAL-1 is inhibited by Levosimendan leading to reduced NET-formation. Anti-gasdermin-D immunohistochemistry showed a cytoplasmic distribution in non-stimulated cells. After stimulation the NET-extrusion pore displayed reduced anti-gasdermin-D staining but accumulated underneath the plasma membrane of the remaining cell body. A similar distribution was observed for myosin that concentrated together with cortical F-actin along the periphery of the remaining cell body suggesting force production by acto-myosin interactions supporting NET expulsion as indicated by the inhibitory action of the myosin ATPase inhibitor blebbistatin. Isolated human neutrophils displayed differences in their content of certain cytoskeletal proteins. After stimulation neutrophils with high gelsolin content preferentially formed "cloud"-like NETs, whereas those with low or no gelsolin formed long "filamentous" NETs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Georg Mannherz
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany; Department of Cellular and Translational Physiology, Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, and Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Institute for Research and Education, St. Josef Hospital, Clinics of the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Heidi Budde
- Department of Cellular and Translational Physiology, Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, and Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Institute for Research and Education, St. Josef Hospital, Clinics of the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Muhammad Jarkas
- Department of Cellular and Translational Physiology, Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, and Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Institute for Research and Education, St. Josef Hospital, Clinics of the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Roua Hassoun
- Department of Cellular and Translational Physiology, Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, and Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Institute for Research and Education, St. Josef Hospital, Clinics of the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Natalia Malek-Chudzik
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Antonina J Mazur
- Department of Cell Pathology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Jelena Skuljec
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Essen, Germany; Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Medicine Essen, Germany.
| | - Refik Pul
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Essen, Germany; Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Medicine Essen, Germany.
| | - Markus Napirei
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
| | - Nazha Hamdani
- Department of Cellular and Translational Physiology, Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, and Molecular and Experimental Cardiology, Institute for Research and Education, St. Josef Hospital, Clinics of the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany; Department of Physiology, University Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands; HCEMM-SU Cardiovascular Comorbidities Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest 1089, Hungary.
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2
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Ye F, Xia T, Zhao M, Zhao W, Min P, Wang Y, Wang Q, Zhang Y, Du J. PlexinA1 promotes gastric cancer migration through preventing MICAL1 protein ubiquitin/proteasome-mediated degradation in a Rac1-dependent manner. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:167124. [PMID: 38508474 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2024.167124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Metastasis promotes the development of tumors and is a significant cause of gastric cancer death. For metastasis to proceed, tumor cells must become mobile by modulating their cytoskeleton. MICAL1 (Molecule Interacting with CasL1) is known as an actin cytoskeleton regulator, but the mechanisms by which it drives gastric cancer cell migration are still unclear. Analysis of gastric cancer tissues revealed that MICAL1 expression is dramatically upregulated in stomach adenocarcinoma (STAD) samples as compared to noncancerous stomach tissues. Patients with high MICAL1 expression had shorter overall survival (OS), post-progression survival (PPS) and first-progression survival (FPS) compared with patients with low MICAL1 expression. RNAi-mediated silencing of MICAL1 inhibited the expression of Vimentin, a protein involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transition. This effect correlates with a significant reduction in gastric cancer cell migration. MICAL1 overexpression reversed these preventive effects. Immunoprecipitation experiments and immunofluorescence assays revealed that PlexinA1 forms a complex with MICAL1. Importantly, specific inhibition of PlexinA1 blocked the Rac1 activation and ROS production, which, in turn, impaired MICAL1 protein stability by accelerating MICAL1 ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent degradation. Overexpression of PlexinA1 enhanced Rac1 activation, ROS production, MICAL1 and Vimentin expressions, and favored cell migration. In conclusion, this study identified MICAL1 as an important facilitator of gastric cancer cell migration, at least in part, by affecting Vimentin expression and PlexinA1 promotes gastric cancer cell migration by binding to and suppressing MICAL1 degradation in a Rac1/ROS-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengwen Ye
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Tianxiang Xia
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - MingYu Zhao
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Weizhen Zhao
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Pengxiang Min
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yueyuan Wang
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Qianwen Wang
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yujie Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Jun Du
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China.
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3
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Kuihon SVNP, Sevart BJ, Abbey CA, Bayless KJ, Chen B. The NADPH oxidase 2 subunit p47 phox binds to the WAVE regulatory complex and p22 phox in a mutually exclusive manner. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107130. [PMID: 38432630 PMCID: PMC10979099 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The actin cytoskeleton and reactive oxygen species (ROS) both play crucial roles in various cellular processes. Previous research indicated a direct interaction between two key components of these systems: the WAVE1 subunit of the WAVE regulatory complex (WRC), which promotes actin polymerization and the p47phox subunit of the NADPH oxidase 2 complex (NOX2), which produces ROS. Here, using carefully characterized recombinant proteins, we find that activated p47phox uses its dual Src homology 3 domains to bind to multiple regions within the WAVE1 and Abi2 subunits of the WRC, without altering WRC's activity in promoting Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization. Notably, contrary to previous findings, p47phox uses the same binding pocket to interact with both the WRC and the p22phox subunit of NOX2, albeit in a mutually exclusive manner. This observation suggests that when activated, p47phox may separately participate in two distinct processes: assembling into NOX2 to promote ROS production and engaging with WRC to regulate the actin cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon V N P Kuihon
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics & Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Brodrick J Sevart
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics & Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Colette A Abbey
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, Texas, USA
| | - Kayla J Bayless
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, Texas, USA
| | - Baoyu Chen
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics & Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA.
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Makiuchi S, Tian Y, Fujimoto M, Kuramoto J, Tsuda N, Ojima H, Gotoh M, Hiraoka N, Yoshida T, Kanai Y, Arai E. DNA methylation alterations of ADCY5, MICAL2, and PLEKHG2 during the developmental stage of cryptogenic hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatol Res 2024; 54:284-299. [PMID: 37906571 DOI: 10.1111/hepr.13984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to clarify the significance of DNA methylation alterations of cryptogenic hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs). METHODS Using the Infinium assay, we performed genome-wide DNA methylation analysis of 250 liver tissue samples, including noncancerous liver tissue (U-N) and corresponding cancerous tissue (U-T) from patients with cryptogenic HCC without a history of excessive alcohol use and hepatitis virus infection, and whose U-N samples showed no remarkable histological features (no microscopic evidence of simple steatosis, any form of hepatitis including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, or liver cirrhosis). RESULTS We identified 3272 probes that showed significant differences of DNA methylation levels between U-N and normal liver tissue samples from patients without HCC, indicating that a distinct DNA methylation profile had already been established at the precancerous U-N stage. U-Ns have a DNA methylation profile differing from that of noncancerous liver tissue of patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-related, viral hepatitis-related, and alcoholic liver disease-related HCCs. Such DNA methylation alterations in U-Ns were inherited by U-Ts. The U-Ns showed DNA methylation alteration of ADCY5, resulting in alteration of its mRNA expression, whereas noncancerous liver tissue of patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-, viral hepatitis-, or alcoholic liver disease-related HCCs did not. DNA methylation levels of MICAL2 and PLEKHG2 in U-Ts were correlated with larger tumor diameter and portal vein involvement, respectively. CONCLUSIONS U-N-specific DNA hypermethylation of ADCY5 may have significance, even from the precancerous stage in liver showing no remarkable histological features. DNA hypomethylation of MICAL2 and PLEKHG2 may determine the clinicopathological features of cryptogenic HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satomi Makiuchi
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ying Tian
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mao Fujimoto
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junko Kuramoto
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noboru Tsuda
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidenori Ojima
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Gotoh
- Fundamental Innovative Oncology Core Center, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobuyoshi Hiraoka
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, National Cancer Center Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Teruhiko Yoshida
- Fundamental Innovative Oncology Core Center, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yae Kanai
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eri Arai
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Martin JL, Khan A, Grintsevich EE. Actin Isoform Composition and Binding Factors Fine-Tune Regulatory Impact of Mical Enzymes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16651. [PMID: 38068973 PMCID: PMC10705957 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mical family enzymes are unusual actin regulators that prime filaments (F-actin) for disassembly via the site-specific oxidation of M44/M47. Filamentous actin acts as a substrate of Mical enzymes, as well as an activator of their NADPH oxidase activity, which leads to hydrogen peroxide generation. Mical enzymes are required for cytokinesis, muscle and heart development, dendritic pruning, and axonal guidance, among other processes. Thus, it is critical to understand how this family of actin regulators functions in different cell types. Vertebrates express six actin isoforms in a cell-specific manner, but MICALs' impact on their intrinsic properties has never been systematically investigated. Our data reveal the differences in the intrinsic dynamics of Mical-oxidized actin isoforms. Furthermore, our results connect the intrinsic dynamics of actin isoforms and their redox state with the patterns of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation by MICALs. We documented that the differential properties of actin isoforms translate into the distinct patterns of hydrogen peroxide generation in Mical/NADPH-containing systems. Moreover, our results establish a conceptual link between actin stabilization by interacting factors and its ability to activate MICALs' NADPH oxidase activity. Altogether, our results suggest that the regulatory impact of MICALs may differ depending on the isoform-related identities of local actin networks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Elena E. Grintsevich
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
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Rajan S, Yoon J, Wu H, Srapyan S, Baskar R, Ahmed G, Yang T, Grintsevich EE, Reisler E, Terman JR. Disassembly of bundled F-actin and cellular remodeling via an interplay of Mical, cofilin, and F-actin crosslinkers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2309955120. [PMID: 37725655 PMCID: PMC10523612 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309955120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular form and function are controlled by the assembly and stability of actin cytoskeletal structures-but disassembling/pruning these structures is equally essential for the plasticity and remodeling that underlie behavioral adaptations. Importantly, the mechanisms of actin assembly have been well-defined-including that it is driven by actin's polymerization into filaments (F-actin) and then often bundling by crosslinking proteins into stable higher-order structures. In contrast, it remains less clear how these stable bundled F-actin structures are rapidly disassembled. We now uncover mechanisms that rapidly and extensively disassemble bundled F-actin. Using biochemical, structural, and imaging assays with purified proteins, we show that F-actin bundled with one of the most prominent crosslinkers, fascin, is extensively disassembled by Mical, the F-actin disassembly enzyme. Furthermore, the product of this Mical effect, Mical-oxidized actin, is poorly bundled by fascin, thereby further amplifying Mical's disassembly effects on bundled F-actin. Moreover, another critical F-actin regulator, cofilin, also affects fascin-bundled filaments, but we find herein that it synergizes with Mical to dramatically amplify its disassembly of bundled F-actin compared to the sum of their individual effects. Genetic and high-resolution cellular assays reveal that Mical also counteracts crosslinking proteins/bundled F-actin in vivo to control cellular extension, axon guidance, and Semaphorin/Plexin cell-cell repulsion. Yet, our results also support the idea that fascin-bundling serves to dampen Mical's F-actin disassembly in vitro and in vivo-and that physiologically relevant cellular remodeling requires a fine-tuned interplay between the factors that build bundled F-actin networks and those that disassemble them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeepa Rajan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA90095
| | - Jimok Yoon
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
| | - Heng Wu
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
| | - Sargis Srapyan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Long Beach, CA90840
| | - Raju Baskar
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
| | - Giasuddin Ahmed
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
| | - Taehong Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
| | - Elena E. Grintsevich
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA90095
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Long Beach, CA90840
| | - Emil Reisler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA90095
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA90095
| | - Jonathan R. Terman
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas of Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX75390
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7
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Singh Y, Hocky GM, Nolen BJ. Molecular dynamics simulations support a multistep pathway for activation of branched actin filament nucleation by Arp2/3 complex. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105169. [PMID: 37595874 PMCID: PMC10514467 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Actin-related protein 2/3 complex (Arp2/3 complex) catalyzes the nucleation of branched actin filaments that push against membranes in processes like cellular motility and endocytosis. During activation by WASP proteins, the complex must bind WASP and engage the side of a pre-existing (mother) filament before a branched filament is nucleated. Recent high-resolution structures of activated Arp2/3 complex revealed two major sets of activating conformational changes. How these activating conformational changes are triggered by interactions of Arp2/3 complex with actin filaments and WASP remains unclear. Here we use a recent high-resolution structure of Arp2/3 complex at a branch junction to design all-atom molecular dynamics simulations that elucidate the pathway between the active and inactive states. We ran a total of ∼4.6 microseconds of both unbiased and steered all-atom molecular dynamics simulations starting from three different binding states, including Arp2/3 complex within a branch junction, bound only to a mother filament, and alone in solution. These simulations indicate that the contacts with the mother filament are mostly insensitive to the massive rigid body motion that moves Arp2 and Arp3 into a short pitch helical (filament-like) arrangement, suggesting actin filaments alone do not stimulate the short pitch conformational change. In contrast, contacts with the mother filament stabilize subunit flattening in Arp3, an intrasubunit change that converts Arp3 from a conformation that mimics an actin monomer to one that mimics a filamentous actin subunit. Our results support a multistep activation pathway that has important implications for understanding how WASP-mediated activation allows Arp2/3 complex to assemble force-producing actin networks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Glen M Hocky
- Department of Chemistry, New York University; Simons Center for Computational Physical Chemistry, New York University.
| | - Brad J Nolen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Oregon.
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Toledano S, Neufeld G. Plexins as Regulators of Cancer Cell Proliferation, Migration, and Invasivity. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:4046. [PMID: 37627074 PMCID: PMC10452846 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15164046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Plexins are a family of nine single-pass transmembrane receptors with a conserved GTPase activating protein (GAP) domain. The plexin family is divided into four subfamilies: Type-A, type-B, type-C, and type-D plexins. Plexins function as receptors for axon guidance factors of the semaphorin family. The semaphorin gene family contains 22 genes that are divided into eight subclasses of which subclasses three to seven represent vertebrate semaphorins. The plexins and their semaphorin ligands have important roles as regulators of angiogenesis, cancer proliferation, and metastasis. Class 3 semaphorins, with the exception of sema3E, are the only semaphorins that do not bind directly to plexins. In order to transduce their signals, they bind instead to complexes consisting of receptors of the neuropilin family and various plexins. Some plexins also form complexes with tyrosine-kinase receptors such as the epidermal growth factor receptor ErbB2, the mesenchymal epithelial transition factor receptor (MET), and the Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and, as a result, can modulate cell proliferation and tumor progression. This review focuses on the roles of the different plexins in the control of cancer cell proliferation and invasiveness. Plexins also affect tumor progression and tumor metastasis by indirect mechanisms, such as modulation of angiogenesis and immune responses. However, these topics are not covered in the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gera Neufeld
- The Cancer Research Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3109602, Israel;
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