Murine and Human Cathelicidins Contribute Differently to Hallmarks of Mastitis Induced by Pathogenic Prototheca bovis Algae

Investigation of Prototheca bovis Infection and Its Correlation with Dairy Herd Improvement Data from a Dairy Farm in Central China

Prototheca bovis (P. bovis), an alga that has attracted considerable attention over the years as a causative microorganism of mastitis in dairy cows, exhibits limited susceptibility to specific aminoglycosides and antifungal agents, and no effective clinical treatment is currently available, thereby posing challenges for both prevention and treatment. To investigate the infection of P. bovis mastitis and its impact on raw milk production, a total of 348 raw milk samples were collected from August to December 2022 from a dairy farm in central China. P. bovis and other bacteria were detected, and the average infection rate of P. bovis in raw milk was 60.34% (210/348). The total number of colonies and the somatic cell count (SCC) of P. bovis positive samples were significantly higher than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). The daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield of the P. bovis positive samples were significantly lower than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). A correlation analysis showed that P. bovis infection was negatively correlated with daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield (p < 0.0001), while being positively correlated with the total number of colonies, SCC, milk loss, and protein percentage (p < 0.0001). These findings may help practitioners in comprehending the occurrence of Prototheca mastitis and developing more effective strategies for the prevention of P. bovis infections.

Development of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for the Detection of Prototheca bovis Directly from Milk Samples of Dairy Cattle

Prototheca bovis is an algal emerging pathogen in dairy farms causing refractory protothecal mastitis with increasing incidence worldwide and significant economic impact. P. bovis infects cows throughout the lactation cycle, including dry periods, and can persist in the udder and the environment for a long time. Since P. bovis does not respond to treatments with antibiotics, the suggested sanitary measure to restrict the spread is culling infected animals. A point-of-care test for early detection of the causative agent is critically needed to guide farm management and the appropriate treatment of mastitis. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a highly specific molecular method, time-saving, cost-effective and easy to perform in limited settings. This study aimed to develop a LAMP assay for P. bovis detection directly from milk samples; it was employed in conjunction with a commercial DNA extraction kit which was previously used to extract DNA from milk specimens containing microbes. The LAMP assay detected P. bovis DNA within 1 h in milk samples spiked with P. bovis at a concentration of 50 cells/μL, enabling on-farm disease monitoring and decision-making based on a reliable diagnosis. The LAMP method will contribute to the accurate and rapid identification of P. bovis in asymptomatic or recurrent mastitis cases and consequently aid the implementation of targeted control measures and the reduction of losses in milk production.

Prototheca bovis induces autophagy in bovine mammary epithelial cells via the HIF-1α and AMPKα/ULK1 pathway

Prototheca bovis, a highly contagious pathogen, causes bovine mastitis, resulting in premature culling of affected cows and severe economic losses. Infection with P. bovis caused oxidative stress and apoptosis in bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs); however, mechanisms underlying P. bovis-induced autophagy remain unclear. Therefore, the autophagy flux induced by P. bovis in bMECs was analyzed by Western blot and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Expression levels of proteins in the HIF-1α and AMPKα/ULK1 pathway, including HIF-1α, AMPKα, p-AMPKα, ULK1, p-ULK1, mTOR, and p-mTOR, plus expression of autophagy-related genes including SQSTM1/p62, Atg5, Beclin1, and LC3II/LC3I, were quantified with Western blot. Infection with P. bovis induced autophagosomes and LC3 puncta in bMECs that were detected using transmission electron microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy, respectively. In addition, lysosome-associated proteins Rab7 and LAMP2a, and lysosomal activity were measured with Western blot and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Infection with P. bovis induced an unobstructed autophagic flux, increased protein expression of LC3II/LC3I, and decreased SQSTM1/p62 protein expression at 6 hpi. Furthermore, P. bovis upregulated protein expression in the HIF-1α and AMPKα/ULK1 pathway and increased the ratio of LC3II/LC3I, implying autophagy was activated in bMECs. However, deletion of AMPKα or ULK1 decreased LC3II/LC3I expression levels and LC3 puncta numbers, suggesting that autophagy was inhibited in bMECs. Additionally, deficiency of HIF-1α decreased protein expression of AMPKα and ULK1 as well as LC3 puncta numbers, and autophagy induced by P. bovis was also inhibited in bMECs. At 6 hpi, lysosome-associated protein Rab7 was decreased and LAMP2a was increased, indicating normal autophagy. In contrast, at 12 hpi, expression of Rab7 and LAMP2a proteins indicated that autophagy was inhibited in bMECs at that time. Therefore, we confirmed that P. bovis infection induced autophagy in bMECs via the HIF-1α and AMPKα/ULK1 pathway, with involvement of lysosome-associated protein Rab7 and LAMP2a.

Human Disseminated Protothecosis: The Skin is the "Window"?

Human disseminated protothecosis is a rare infection caused by members of the genus Prototheca, an achlorophyllic algae always associated with debilitated hosts. The presence of non-budding cells and large, spherical cells (sporangia) with endosporulation (morula) in histology is proof of Prototheca infection. Regrettably, due to the lack of specificity of clinical features and low awareness among clinicians, protothecosis is always underestimated and misdiagnosed. The available data on a species-specific analysis of this infection are limited. In this review, we summarize the etiological, epidemiological, and clinical aspects of disseminated protothecosis. The potential pathogenicity and clinical differences between P. zopfii and P. wickerhamii were observed. Additionally, the skin not only became the main invasion site but also the most involved organ by the pathogen. With the increasing numbers of immunocompromised individuals throughout the world, the incidence of disseminated infection caused by Prototheca is bound to increase, and disseminated protothecosis that accompanies skin symptoms should be taken into account by clinicians.

Prototheca spp. induce an inflammatory response via mtROS-mediated activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways in bovine mammary epithelial cell cultures

Emergence of bovine mastitis caused by Prototheca algae is the impetus to better understand these infections. Both P. bovis and P. ciferrii belong to Prototheca algae, but they differ in their pathogenicity to induce inflammatory responses. The objective was to characterize and compare pathogenesis of inflammatory responses in bMECs induced by P. bovis versus P. ciferrii. Mitochondrial ultrastructure, activity and mtROS in bMECs were assessed with transmission electron microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-18, were measured by ELISA and real-time PCR, whereas expressions of various proteins in the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways were detected with immunofluorescence or Western blot. Infection with P. bovis or P. ciferrii damaged mitochondria, including dissolution and vacuolation of cristae, and decreased mitochondrial activity, with P. bovis being more pathogenic and causing greater destruction. There were increases in NADPH production and mtROS accumulation in infected bMECs, with P. bovis causing greater increases and also inducing higher cytokine concentrations. Expressions of NF-κB-p65, p-NF-κB-p65, IκBα and p-IκBα proteins in the NF-κB pathway, as well as NLRP3, Pro Caspase1, Caspase1 p20, ASC, Pro IL-1β, and IL-1β proteins in the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, were significantly higher in P. bovis-infected bMECs. However, mito-TEMPO significantly inhibited production of cytokines and decreased expression of proteins in NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways in bMECs infected with either P. bovis or P. ciferrii. In conclusion, P. bovis or P. ciferrii infections induced inflammatory responses in bMECs, with increased mtROS in damaged mitochondria and activated NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways, with P. bovis causing a more severe reaction.

The Protective Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum KLDS 1.0344 on LPS-Induced Mastitis In Vitro and In Vivo

Cow mastitis, which significantly lowers milk quality, is mainly caused by pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli. Previous studies have suggested that lactic acid bacteria can have antagonistic effects on pathogenic bacteria that cause mastitis. In the current study, we evaluated the in vitro and in vivo alleviative effects of L. plantarum KLDS 1.0344 in mastitis treatment. In vitro antibacterial experiments were performed using bovine mammary epithelial cell (bMEC), followed by in vivo studies involving mastitis mouse models. In vitro results indicate that lactic acid was the primary substance inhibiting the E. coli pathogen. Meanwhile, treatment with L. plantarum KLDS 1.0344 can reduce cytokines' mRNA expression levels in the inflammatory response of bMEC induced by LPS. In vivo, the use of this strain reduced the secretion of inflammatory factors IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, and decreased the activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO), and inhibited the secretion of p-p65 and p-IκBα. These results indicate that L. plantarum KLDS 1.0344 pretreatment can reduce the expression of inflammatory factors by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway, thus exerting prevent the occurrence of inflammation in vivo. Our findings show that L. plantarum KLDS 1.0344 has excellent properties as an alternative to antibiotics and can be developed into lactic acid bacteria preparation to prevent mastitis disease.

Protothecosis in Dogs and Cats-New Research Directions

Protothecosis refers to disease of humans and animals caused by infection with fungus-like, colourless microalgae of the genus Prototheca. Although protothecosis remains an uncommon infection, increasing numbers of human and animal cases are being diagnosed worldwide. This review summarises major new findings in basic science (sequencing analyses of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51/ERG11) genes and organelle genomes of Prototheca wickerhamii) to elucidate taxonomic features of this pathogen. Furthermore, this review updates and summarises the clinical features, diagnosis and treatment of protothecosis in dogs and cats. This content of this review is based on information presented at the medical phycology symposium held in the 20th Congress of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology ( https://www.isham.org/ ).

The Network of Colonic Host Defense Peptides as an Innate Immune Defense Against Enteropathogenic Bacteria

Host defense peptides, abundantly secreted by colonic epithelial cells and leukocytes, are proposed to be critical components of an innate immune response in the colon against enteropathogenic bacteria, including Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Clostridium difficile, and attaching and effacing Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium. These short cationic peptides are bactericidal against both Gram-positive and -negative enteric pathogens, but may also exert killing effects on intestinal luminal microbiota. Simultaneously, these peptides modulate numerous cellular responses crucial for gut defenses, including leukocyte chemotaxis and migration, wound healing, cytokine production, cell proliferation, and pathogen sensing. This review discusses recent advances in our understanding of expression, mechanisms of action and microbicidal and immunomodulatory functions of major colonic host defense peptides, namely cathelicidins, β-defensins, and members of the Regenerating islet-derived protein III (RegIII) and Resistin-like molecule (RELM) families. In a theoretical framework where these peptides work synergistically, aspects of pathogenesis of infectious colitis reviewed herein uncover roles of host defense peptides aimed to promote epithelial defenses and prevent pathogen colonization, mediated through a combination of direct antimicrobial function and fine-tuning of host immune response and inflammation. This interactive host defense peptide network may decode how the intestinal immune system functions to quickly clear infections, restore homeostasis and avoid damaging inflammation associated with pathogen persistence during infectious colitis. This information is of interest in development of host defense peptides (either alone or in combination with reduced doses of antibiotics) as antimicrobial and immunomodulatory therapeutics for controlling infectious colitis.