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Singh R, Kaur S, Yadav S, Bhatia S. Gonadotropins as pharmacological agents in assisted reproductive technology and polycystic ovary syndrome. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2023; 34:194-215. [PMID: 36863888 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2023.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrinopathy associated with subfertility/infertility and pregnancy complications. Most PCOS women opt for assisted reproductive technologies (ART) for successful conception; however, optimization of the relative doses of the gonadotropins [follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)/human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)] for appropriate steroidogenesis, without causing ovarian hyperstimulatory syndrome (OHSS), is challenging. Embryonic factors probably do not contribute to pregnancy loss in PCOS women, albeit hormonal imbalance impairs the metabolic microenvironment critical for oocyte maturation and endometrial receptivity. Certain clinical studies have confirmed the role of metabolic corrections in increasing the rate of pregnancy in PCOS women. This review focuses on the impact of untimely high LHCGR and/or LH levels on oocyte/embryo quality, pregnancy outcomes in ART, and exploring LHCGR as a potential drug target in PCOS women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Singh
- Division of Molecular Endocrinology and Reproduction, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.
| | - Surleen Kaur
- Division of Molecular Endocrinology and Reproduction, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Suman Yadav
- Division of Molecular Endocrinology and Reproduction, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Smita Bhatia
- Department of Zoology, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
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2
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Abstract
Gonadotropins are glycoprotein sex hormones regulating development and reproduction and bind to specific G protein–coupled receptors expressed in the gonads. Their effects on multiple signaling cascades and intracellular events have recently been characterized using novel technological and scientific tools. The impact of allosteric modulators on gonadotropin signaling, the role of sugars linked to the hormone backbone, the detection of endosomal compartments supporting signaling modules, and the dissection of different effects mediated by these molecules are areas that have advanced significantly in the last decade. The classic view providing the exclusive activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) and the steroidogenic pathway by these hormones has been expanded with the addition of novel signaling cascades as determined by high-resolution imaging techniques. These new findings provided new potential therapeutic applications. Despite these improvements, unanswered issues of gonadotropin physiology, such as the intrinsic pro-apoptotic potential to these hormones, the existence of receptors assembled as heteromers, and their expression in extragonadal tissues, remain to be studied. Elucidating these issues is a challenge for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Modena, Via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
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3
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Munier M, Ayoub M, Suteau V, Gourdin L, Henrion D, Reiter E, Rodien P. In vitro effects of the endocrine disruptor p,p'DDT on human choriogonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptor signalling. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1671-1681. [PMID: 33638691 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'DDT) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC). Several studies showed an association between p,p'DDT exposure and reprotoxic effects. We showed that p,p'DDT was a positive allosteric modulator of human follitropin receptor (FSHR). In contrast, we demonstrated that p,p'DDT decreased the cyclic AMP (cAMP) production induced by human choriogonadotropin (hCG). This study evaluated further the effects of p,p'DDT on Gs-, β-arrestin 2- and steroidogenesis pathways induced by hCG or luteinizing hormone (LH). We used Chinese hamster ovary cells line stably expressing hCG/LHR. The effects of 10-100 µM p,p'DDT on cAMP production and on β-arrestin 2 recruitment were measured using bioluminescence and time-resolved resonance energy transfer technology. The impact of 100 µM of p,p'DDT on steroid secretion was analysed in murine Leydig tumor cell line (mLTC-1). In cAMP assays, 100 µM p,p'DDT increased the EC50 by more than 300% and reduced the maximum response of the hCG/LHR to hCG and hLH by 30%. This inhibitory effect was also found in human granulosa cells line and in mLTC-1 cells. Likewise, 100 µM p,p'DDT decreased the hCG- and hLH-promoted β-arrestin 2 recruitment down to 14.2 and 26.6%, respectively. Moreover, 100 µM p,p'DDT decreased by 30 and 47% the progesterone secretion induced by hCG or hLH, respectively, without affecting testosterone secretion. This negative effect of p,p'DDT was independent of cytotoxicity. p,p'DDT acted as a negative allosteric modulator of the hCG/LHR signalling. This emphasizes the importance of analyzing all receptor-downstream pathways to fully understand the deleterious effects of EDC on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Munier
- UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM 1083, 3 Rue Roger Amsler - Angers University, 49000, Angers, France. .,Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France. .,Reference Center for Rare Diseases of Thyroid and Hormone Receptors, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France.
| | - Mohammed Ayoub
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.,Reproductive and Behavioural Physiology, INRAE, CNRS, IFCE, Tours University, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Valentine Suteau
- UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM 1083, 3 Rue Roger Amsler - Angers University, 49000, Angers, France.,Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France
| | - Louis Gourdin
- UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM 1083, 3 Rue Roger Amsler - Angers University, 49000, Angers, France.,Reference Center for Rare Diseases of Thyroid and Hormone Receptors, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France
| | - Daniel Henrion
- UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM 1083, 3 Rue Roger Amsler - Angers University, 49000, Angers, France
| | - Eric Reiter
- Reproductive and Behavioural Physiology, INRAE, CNRS, IFCE, Tours University, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Patrice Rodien
- UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM 1083, 3 Rue Roger Amsler - Angers University, 49000, Angers, France.,Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France.,Reference Center for Rare Diseases of Thyroid and Hormone Receptors, University Hospital, 4 Rue Larrey, 49933, Angers, France
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Orvieto R, Venetis CA, Fatemi HM, D’Hooghe T, Fischer R, Koloda Y, Horton M, Grynberg M, Longobardi S, Esteves SC, Sunkara SK, Li Y, Alviggi C. Optimising Follicular Development, Pituitary Suppression, Triggering and Luteal Phase Support During Assisted Reproductive Technology: A Delphi Consensus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:675670. [PMID: 34040586 PMCID: PMC8142593 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.675670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A Delphi consensus was conducted to evaluate global expert opinions on key aspects of assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatment. METHODS Ten experts plus the Scientific Coordinator discussed and amended statements plus supporting references proposed by the Scientific Coordinator. The statements were distributed via an online survey to 35 experts, who voted on their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement. Consensus was reached if the proportion of participants agreeing or disagreeing with a statement was >66%. RESULTS Eighteen statements were developed. All statements reached consensus and the most relevant are summarised here. (1) Follicular development and stimulation with gonadotropins (n = 9 statements): Recombinant human follicle stimulating hormone (r-hFSH) alone is sufficient for follicular development in normogonadotropic patients aged <35 years. Oocyte number and live birth rate are strongly correlated; there is a positive linear correlation with cumulative live birth rate. Different r-hFSH preparations have identical polypeptide chains but different glycosylation patterns, affecting the biospecific activity of r-hFSH. r-hFSH plus recombinant human LH (r-hFSH:r-hLH) demonstrates improved pregnancy rates and cost efficacy versus human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG) in patients with severe FSH and LH deficiency. (2) Pituitary suppression (n = 2 statements): Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists are associated with lower rates of any grade ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) and cycle cancellation versus GnRH agonists. (3) Final oocyte maturation triggering (n=4 statements): Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) represents the gold standard in fresh cycles. The efficacy of hCG triggering for frozen transfers in modified natural cycles is controversial compared with LH peak monitoring. Current evidence supports significantly higher pregnancy rates with hCG + GnRH agonist versus hCG alone, but further evidence is needed. GnRH agonist trigger, in GnRH antagonist protocol, is recommended for final oocyte maturation in women at risk of OHSS. (4) Luteal-phase support (n = 3 statements): Vaginal progesterone therapy represents the gold standard for luteal-phase support. CONCLUSIONS This Delphi consensus provides a real-world clinical perspective on the specific approaches during the key steps of ART treatment from a diverse group of international experts. Additional guidance from clinicians on ART strategies could complement guidelines and policies, and may help to further improve treatment outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raoul Orvieto
- Infertility and IVF Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chaim Sheba Medical Center (Tel Hashomer), Ramat Gan, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- The Tarnesby-Tarnowski Chair for Family Planning and Fertility Regulation, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- *Correspondence: Raoul Orvieto,
| | - Christos A. Venetis
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health & School of Women’s and Children’s Health, UNSW Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- IVF Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Human M. Fatemi
- Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART), Fertility Clinics, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Thomas D’Hooghe
- Global Medical Affairs, Research and Development, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
- Research Group Reproductive Medicine, Department of Development and Regeneration, Organ Systems, Group Biomedical Sciences, KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | | | - Yulia Koloda
- Center of Reproduction “Life Line”, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Russian Medical Academy of Continuous Professional Education, Moscow, Russia
| | - Marcos Horton
- Pregna Medicina Reproductiva, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Michael Grynberg
- Service de Médecine de la Reproduction et Préservation de la Fertilité, Hôpital Antoine Béclère, Clamart, France
| | - Salvatore Longobardi
- Global Clinical Development, Merck Serono, Italy, an Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Sandro C. Esteves
- ANDROFERT, Andrology and Human Reproduction Clinic, Center for Male Reproduction, Campinas, Brazil
- Faculty of Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sesh K. Sunkara
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yuan Li
- Medical Center for Human Reproduction, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Carlo Alviggi
- Department of Neuroscience, Reproductive Science and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Newton CL, Anderson RC, Kreuchwig A, Krause G, Katz AA, Millar RP. Rescue of Function of Mutant Luteinising Hormone Receptors with Deficiencies in Cell Surface Expression, Hormone Binding, and Hormone Signalling. Neuroendocrinology 2021; 111:451-464. [PMID: 32316022 DOI: 10.1159/000508000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) mutations are implicated in many diseases. Most inactivating mutations cause receptor misfolding and prevent trafficking to the plasma membrane. Pharmacological chaperones can "rescue" cell surface expression of such mutants, presumably by stabilising correct folding of the nascent protein. OBJECTIVE Here we examine the scope of intracellularly retained luteinising hormone receptor (LHR) mutants that can be "rescued" by the pharmacological chaperone LHR-Chap, and whether this allosteric agonist can also restore the function of mutant LHRs with deficiencies in hormone binding or hormone-induced signalling. METHODS Mutant LHRs were expressed in HEK 293-T cells. Cell surface expression/localisation, hormone binding, and hCG/LHR-Chap signalling were determined by ELISA, radioligand binding, and inositol phosphate accumulation assays, respectively. Molecular modelling predicted LHR-Chap interactions. RESULTS LHR-Chap increased cell surface expression of a subset of retained mutants located in transmembrane helices predicted to be stabilised by LHR-Chap binding. For 3 (T4613.47I, L5024.61P, and S6167.46Y) hCG-responsiveness was increased following treatment. LHRs with mutations in the hormone-binding site (C131ECDR and I152ECDT) or in the hinge region (E354HingeK) had good cell surface expression but poor response to hormone stimulation, yet were responsive to allosteric activation by LHR-Chap. CONCLUSIONS LHR-Chap, in addition to rescuing cell surface expression of intracellularly retained LHR mutants, can rescue function in mutant receptors with binding and signalling deficiencies that have normal cell surface expression. This demonstration of rescue of multiple elements of LHR dysfunction arising from inactivating mutations offers exceptional potential for treating patients with diseases arising from GPCR mutations in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Louise Newton
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa,
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa,
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,
| | - Ross Calley Anderson
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Annika Kreuchwig
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerd Krause
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Arieh Anthony Katz
- UCT Receptor Biology Research Unit and SAMRC Gynaecology Cancer Research Centre, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robert Peter Millar
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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Identification of Key Receptor Residues Discriminating Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)- and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)-Specific Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:ijms22010151. [PMID: 33375708 PMCID: PMC7794846 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) The human luteinizing hormone (LH)/chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) receptor (LHCGR) discriminates its two hormone ligands and differs from the murine receptor (Lhr) in amino acid residues potentially involved in qualitative discerning of LH and hCG. The latter gonadotropin is absent in rodents. The aim of the study is to identify LHCGR residues involved in hCG/LH discrimination. (2) Eight LHCGR cDNAs were developed, carrying “murinizing” mutations on aminoacidic residues assumed to interact specifically with LH, hCG, or both. HEK293 cells expressing a mutant or the wild type receptor were treated with LH or hCG and the kinetics of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (pERK1/2) activation was analyzed by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). (3) Mutations falling within the receptor leucine reach repeat 9 and 10 (LRR9 and LRR10; K225S +T226I and R247T), of the large extracellular binding domain, are linked to loss of hormone-specific induced cAMP increase, as well as hCG-specific pERK1/2 activation, leading to a Lhr-like modulation of the LHCGR-mediated intracellular signaling pattern. These results support the hypothesis that LHCGR LRR domain is the interaction site of the hormone β-L2 loop, which differs between LH and hCG, and might be fundamental for inducing gonadotropin-specific signals. (4) Taken together, these data identify LHCGR key residues likely evolved in the human to discriminate LH/hCG specific binding.
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Casarini L, Riccetti L, Paradiso E, Benevelli R, Lazzaretti C, Sperduti S, Melli B, Tagliavini S, Varani M, Trenti T, Morini D, Falbo A, Villani MT, Jonas KC, Simoni M. Two human menopausal gonadotrophin (hMG) preparations display different early signaling in vitro. Mol Hum Reprod 2020; 26:894-905. [PMID: 33084890 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gaaa070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Commercial hMG drugs are marketed for the treatment of infertility and consist of highly purified hormones acting on receptors expressed in target gonadal cells. Menopur® and Meriofert® are combined preparation of FSH and hCG and are compared in vitro herein. To this purpose, the molecular composition of the two drugs was analyzed by immunoassay. The formation of FSH receptor and LH/hCG receptor (FSHR; LHCGR) heteromer, intracellular Ca2+ and cAMP activation, β-arrestin 2 recruitment and the synthesis of progesterone and estradiol were evaluated in transfected HEK293 and human primary granulosa lutein cells treated by drugs administered within the pg-mg/ml concentration range. Molecular characterization revealed that Meriofert® has a higher FSH:hCG ratio than Menopur® which, in turn, displays the presence of LH molecules. While both drugs induced similar FSHR-LHCGR heteromeric formations and intracellular Ca2+ increase, Meriofert® had a higher potency than Menopur® in inducing a cAMP increase. Moreover, Meriofert® revealed a higher potency than Menopur® in recruiting β-arrestin 2, likely due to different FSH content modulating the tridimensional structure of FSHR-LHCGR-β-arrestin 2 complexes, as evidenced by a decrease in bioluminescence resonance energy transfer signal. This drug-specific activation of intracellular signaling pathways is consistent with the molecular composition of these preparations and impacts downstream progesterone and estradiol production, with Menopur® more potent than Meriofert® in inducing the synthesis of both the steroids. These findings are suggestive of distinct in-vivo activities of these preparations, but require cautious interpretation and further validation from clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.,Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena 41125, Italy
| | - Laura Riccetti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Elia Paradiso
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.,International PhD School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine (CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena 41125, Italy
| | - Riccardo Benevelli
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Clara Lazzaretti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.,International PhD School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine (CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena 41125, Italy
| | - Samantha Sperduti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.,Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena 41125, Italy
| | - Beatrice Melli
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Simonetta Tagliavini
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathological Anatomy, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Modena 41126, Italy
| | - Manuela Varani
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathological Anatomy, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Modena 41126, Italy
| | - Tommaso Trenti
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathological Anatomy, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Modena 41126, Italy
| | - Daria Morini
- Azienda Unità Sanitaria Locale-IRCCS di Reggio Emilia, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Fertility Center, ASMN, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Angela Falbo
- Azienda Unità Sanitaria Locale-IRCCS di Reggio Emilia, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Fertility Center, ASMN, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Villani
- Azienda Unità Sanitaria Locale-IRCCS di Reggio Emilia, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Fertility Center, ASMN, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Kim C Jonas
- Department of Women and Children's Health, School of Life course Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.,International PhD School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine (CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena 41125, Italy.,Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, 41126 Modena, Italy.,PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France
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Althumairy D, Zhang X, Baez N, Barisas G, Roess DA, Bousfield GR, Crans DC. Glycoprotein G-protein Coupled Receptors in Disease: Luteinizing Hormone Receptors and Follicle Stimulating Hormone Receptors. Diseases 2020; 8:E35. [PMID: 32942611 PMCID: PMC7565105 DOI: 10.3390/diseases8030035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Signal transduction by luteinizing hormone receptors (LHRs) and follicle-stimulating hormone receptors (FSHRs) is essential for the successful reproduction of human beings. Both receptors and the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor are members of a subset of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) described as the glycoprotein hormone receptors. Their ligands, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) and a structurally related hormone produced in pregnancy, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), are large protein hormones that are extensively glycosylated. Although the primary physiologic functions of these receptors are in ovarian function and maintenance of pregnancy in human females and spermatogenesis in males, there are reports of LHRs or FSHRs involvement in disease processes both in the reproductive system and elsewhere. In this review, we evaluate the aggregation state of the structure of actively signaling LHRs or FSHRs, their functions in reproduction as well as summarizing disease processes related to receptor mutations affecting receptor function or expression in reproductive and non-reproductive tissues. We will also present novel strategies for either increasing or reducing the activity of LHRs signaling. Such approaches to modify signaling by glycoprotein receptors may prove advantageous in treating diseases relating to LHRs or FSHRs function in addition to furthering the identification of new strategies for modulating GPCR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duaa Althumairy
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (D.A.); (G.B.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
| | - Xiaoping Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (X.Z.); (N.B.)
| | - Nicholas Baez
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (X.Z.); (N.B.)
| | - George Barisas
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (D.A.); (G.B.)
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (X.Z.); (N.B.)
| | - Deborah A. Roess
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA;
| | - George R. Bousfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260, USA;
| | - Debbie C. Crans
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (D.A.); (G.B.)
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (X.Z.); (N.B.)
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9
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Schug S, Baunacke A, Goeckenjan M, Horn LC, Pretzsch G, Zimmermann G, Alexander H. Endometrial human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) expression is a marker for adequate secretory transformation of the endometrium. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2019; 299:1727-1736. [PMID: 30955059 DOI: 10.1007/s00404-019-05130-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Successful embryo implantation into the endometrium depends on embryonic characteristics and proper endometrial development. Reproductive medicine often focuses on embryo quality, whereas reliable diagnostic tests for endometrial receptivity are still needed. We previously found that human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), one of the earliest proteins secreted by the embryo, was also expressed by the luteal phase endometrium around the implantation window. Here, we tested our hypothesis of endometrial hCG as an implantation marker. METHODS Endometrial biopsies and serum samples were taken from patients undergoing routine infertility diagnostics. Correlations of immunohistochemically detected endometrial hCG expression with adequate endometrial secretory transformation, the infiltration of CD45-positive leukocytes, clinical diagnostic parameters, and endometrial thickness were analyzed. RESULTS A highly significant correlation between the endometrial score, as a measurement for regular secretory transformation, and the intensity of hCG staining was found. The invasion of CD45-positive leukocytes increased with progressing endometrial secretory transformation and rising endometrial hCG expression. In addition, serum progesterone concentrations correlated with hCG expression by the endometrial glands. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest endometrial hCG as a possible diagnostic parameter characterizing the endometrial secretory transformation and, thus, possibly also its implantation capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindy Schug
- Research Laboratory of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Human Reproduction and Endocrinology, Medical School, University of Leipzig, Semmelweisstr. 14, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anja Baunacke
- Research Laboratory of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Human Reproduction and Endocrinology, Medical School, University of Leipzig, Semmelweisstr. 14, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maren Goeckenjan
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Lars-Christian Horn
- Institute of Pathology, Department of Breast, Gynecological and Perinatal Pathology, University Hospital of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 24, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pretzsch
- Women's Hospital, University Hospital of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 20a, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gerolf Zimmermann
- Research Laboratory of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Human Reproduction and Endocrinology, Medical School, University of Leipzig, Semmelweisstr. 14, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henry Alexander
- Research Laboratory of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Human Reproduction and Endocrinology, Medical School, University of Leipzig, Semmelweisstr. 14, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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10
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Lazzaretti C, Riccetti L, Sperduti S, Anzivino C, Brigante G, De Pascali F, Potì F, Rovei V, Restagno G, Mari C, Lussiana C, Benedetto C, Revelli A, Casarini L. Inferring biallelism of two FSH receptor mutations associated with spontaneous ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome by evaluating FSH, LH and HCG cross-activity. Reprod Biomed Online 2018; 38:816-824. [PMID: 30910395 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2018.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
RESEARCH QUESTION What is the cumulative effect of two follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) mutations in spontaneous ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (sOHSS) pathogenesis? Are these mutations in the mono- or biallelic state? DESIGN Two FSHR mutations were found in a pregnant patient affected by sOHSS with no predisposing conditions. While the p.Asn106His mutation is novel, the p.Ser128Tyr mutation has been associated with sOHSS previously. The patient's FSHR gene was analysed by Sanger sequencing, and FSHR cDNAs carrying a single or both point mutations were created by mutagenesis in vitro. cAMP activation by recombinant FSH, luteinizing hormone (LH), human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) was evaluated in transfected HEK293 cells by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer. RESULTS All mutations decreased the 50% effective concentration of FSH calculated for cAMP (P < 0.05, n = 6), resulting in two- to 10-fold lower ligand potency. TSH failed to induce an FSHR-mediated increase in intracellular cAMP, while LH was approximately four-fold more potent than HCG in p.Ser128Tyr FSHR-expressing HEK293 cells despite lower cAMP plateau levels (P < 0.05, n = 5). The p.Ser128Tyr FSHR mutation was found to be responsible for an LH-/HCG-induced increase in cAMP when it was in the biallelic heterozygous state with p.Asn106His, but no increase in cAMP was induced in the monoallelic state. CONCLUSION In-vitro data support that, in pregnant patients with sOHSS, the two FSHR mutations have an opposing effect on the pathogenesis of sOHSS and are in the biallelic heterozygous form, allowing HCG to induce a p.Ser128Tyr FSHR-mediated increase in cAMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Lazzaretti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Laura Riccetti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Samantha Sperduti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Claudia Anzivino
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Giulia Brigante
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria di Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Francesco De Pascali
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Francesco Potì
- Unit of Neurosciences, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Valentina Rovei
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Physiopathology of Reproduction and IVF Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Torino, OIRM-S. Anna Hospital, Torino, Italy
| | - Gabriella Restagno
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, S. Anna Hospital, Città della Salute e della Scienza, Torino, Italy
| | - Caterina Mari
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, S. Anna Hospital, Città della Salute e della Scienza, Torino, Italy
| | - Cristina Lussiana
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Physiopathology of Reproduction and IVF Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Torino, OIRM-S. Anna Hospital, Torino, Italy; Molecular Genetics Laboratory, S. Anna Hospital, Città della Salute e della Scienza, Torino, Italy
| | - Chiara Benedetto
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Physiopathology of Reproduction and IVF Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Torino, OIRM-S. Anna Hospital, Torino, Italy
| | - Alberto Revelli
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Physiopathology of Reproduction and IVF Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Torino, OIRM-S. Anna Hospital, Torino, Italy.
| | - Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Centre for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.
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11
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Anderson RC, Newton CL, Anderson RA, Millar RP. Gonadotropins and Their Analogs: Current and Potential Clinical Applications. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:911-937. [PMID: 29982442 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The gonadotropin receptors LH receptor and FSH receptor play a central role in governing reproductive competency/fertility. Gonadotropin hormone analogs have been used clinically for decades in assisted reproductive therapies and in the treatment of various infertility disorders. Though these treatments are effective, the clinical protocols demand multiple injections, and the hormone preparations can lack uniformity and stability. The past two decades have seen a drive to develop chimeric and modified peptide analogs with more desirable pharmacokinetic profiles, with some displaying clinical efficacy, such as corifollitropin alfa, which is now in clinical use. More recently, low-molecular-weight, orally active molecules with activity at gonadotropin receptors have been developed. Some have excellent characteristics in animals and in human studies but have not reached the market-largely as a result of acquisitions by large pharma. Nonetheless, such molecules have the potential to mitigate risks currently associated with gonadotropin-based fertility treatments, such as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome and the demands of injection-based therapies. There is also scope for novel use beyond the current remit of gonadotropin analogs in fertility treatments, including application as novel contraceptives; in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome; in the restoration of function to inactivating mutations of gonadotropin receptors; in the treatment of ovarian and prostate cancers; and in the prevention of bone loss and weight gain in postmenopausal women. Here we review the properties and clinical application of current gonadotropin preparations and their analogs, as well as the development of novel orally active, small-molecule nonpeptide analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross C Anderson
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Claire L Newton
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Richard A Anderson
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Robert P Millar
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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12
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Casarini L, Santi D, Brigante G, Simoni M. Two Hormones for One Receptor: Evolution, Biochemistry, Actions, and Pathophysiology of LH and hCG. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:549-592. [PMID: 29905829 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
LH and chorionic gonadotropin (CG) are glycoproteins fundamental to sexual development and reproduction. Because they act on the same receptor (LHCGR), the general consensus has been that LH and human CG (hCG) are equivalent. However, separate evolution of LHβ and hCGβ subunits occurred in primates, resulting in two molecules sharing ~85% identity and regulating different physiological events. Pituitary, pulsatile LH production results in an ~90-minute half-life molecule targeting the gonads to regulate gametogenesis and androgen synthesis. Trophoblast hCG, the "pregnancy hormone," exists in several isoforms and glycosylation variants with long half-lives (hours) and angiogenic potential and acts on luteinized ovarian cells as progestational. The different molecular features of LH and hCG lead to hormone-specific LHCGR binding and intracellular signaling cascades. In ovarian cells, LH action is preferentially exerted through kinases, phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2) and phosphorylated AKT (also known as protein kinase B), resulting in irreplaceable proliferative/antiapoptotic signals and partial agonism on progesterone production in vitro. In contrast, hCG displays notable cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated steroidogenic and proapoptotic potential, which is masked by estrogen action in vivo. In vitro data have been confirmed by a large data set from assisted reproduction, because the steroidogenic potential of hCG positively affects the number of retrieved oocytes, and LH affects the pregnancy rate (per oocyte number). Leydig cell in vitro exposure to hCG results in qualitatively similar cAMP/PKA and pERK1/2 activation compared with LH and testosterone. The supposed equivalence of LH and hCG has been disproved by such data, highlighting their sex-specific functions and thus deeming it an oversight caused by incomplete understanding of clinical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livio Casarini
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic, and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Daniele Santi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic, and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, Modena, Italy
| | - Giulia Brigante
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic, and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, Modena, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic, and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, Modena, Italy
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13
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Yvinec R, Crépieux P, Reiter E, Poupon A, Clément F. Advances in computational modeling approaches of pituitary gonadotropin signaling. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2018; 13:799-813. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2018.1501025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Romain Yvinec
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | | | - Eric Reiter
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Anne Poupon
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Frédérique Clément
- Inria, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France
- LMS, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France
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14
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Xu Y, Chen Y, Li N, Hu X, Li G, Ding Y, Li J, Shen Y, Wang X, Wang J. Novel compound heterozygous variants in the LHCGR gene identified in a subject with Leydig cell hypoplasia type 1. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2018; 31:239-245. [PMID: 29305568 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2016-0445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leydig cell hypoplasia (LCH) is a rare disease and one of the causes of male disorder of sexual differentiation (DSD). Inactivating mutations in the luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor (LHCGR) gene account for the underlying LCH pathogenicity. This study aimed to analyze the clinical presentation and diagnosis as well as highlight the molecular characteristics of a subject with LCH type 1. CASE PRESENTATION Clinical data were collected from the subject and analyzed. Next generation sequencing of the immediate family pedigree using peripheral blood genomic DNA was performed, and the relevant mutations were verified with Sanger sequencing. We describe the case of a 5-year-old patient with DSD, presenting with a lateral inguinal hernia accompanied by abnormal hormone tests. The genetic analysis revealed novel compound heterozygous variants in the LHCGR gene, including a splice site mutation (c.681-1 G>A) and a frameshift variant (c.1582_1585del ATAT, p.Ile528*). CONCLUSIONS We identified novel compound heterozygous variants in the LHCGR gene, and expanded the genotype-phenotype correlation spectrum of LHCGR variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufei Xu
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yulin Chen
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Niu Li
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Xuyun Hu
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Guoqiang Li
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yu Ding
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yiping Shen
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xiumin Wang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, P.R. China
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15
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Estrogen Modulates Specific Life and Death Signals Induced by LH and hCG in Human Primary Granulosa Cells In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18050926. [PMID: 28452938 PMCID: PMC5454839 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18050926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) are glycoprotein hormones used for assisted reproduction acting on the same receptor (LHCGR) and mediating different intracellular signaling. We evaluated the pro- and anti-apoptotic effect of 100 pM LH or hCG, in the presence or in the absence of 200 pg/mL 17β-estradiol, in long-term, serum-starved human primary granulosa cells (hGLC) and a transfected granulosa cell line overexpressing LHCGR (hGL5/LHCGR). To this purpose, phospho-extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2), protein kinase B (pAKT), cAMP-responsive element binding protein (pCREB) activation and procaspase 3 cleavage were evaluated over three days by Western blotting, along with the expression of target genes by real-time PCR and cell viability by colorimetric assay. We found that LH induced predominant pERK1/2 and pAKT activation STARD1, CCND2 and anti-apoptotic XIAP gene expression, while hCG mediated more potent CREB phosphorylation, expression of CYP19A1 and procaspase 3 cleavage than LH. Cell treatment by LH is accompanied by increased (serum-starved) cell viability, while hCG decreased the number of viable cells. The hCG-specific, pro-apoptotic effect was blocked by a physiological dose of 17β-estradiol, resulting in pAKT activation, lack of procaspase 3 cleavage and increased cell viability. These results confirm that relatively high levels of steroidogenic pathway activation are linked to pro-apoptotic signals in vitro, which may be counteracted by other factors, i.e., estrogens.
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16
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Human Luteinizing Hormone and Chorionic Gonadotropin Display Biased Agonism at the LH and LH/CG Receptors. Sci Rep 2017; 7:940. [PMID: 28424471 PMCID: PMC5430435 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01078-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human luteinizing hormone (LH) and chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) have been considered biologically equivalent because of their structural similarities and their binding to the same receptor; the LH/CGR. However, accumulating evidence suggest that LH/CGR differentially responds to the two hormones triggering differential intracellular signaling and steroidogenesis. The mechanistic basis of such differential responses remains mostly unknown. Here, we compared the abilities of recombinant rhLH and rhCG to elicit cAMP, β-arrestin 2 activation, and steroidogenesis in HEK293 cells and mouse Leydig tumor cells (mLTC-1). For this, BRET and FRET technologies were used allowing quantitative analyses of hormone activities in real-time and in living cells. Our data indicate that rhLH and rhCG differentially promote cell responses mediated by LH/CGR revealing interesting divergences in their potencies, efficacies and kinetics: rhCG was more potent than rhLH in both HEK293 and mLTC-1 cells. Interestingly, partial effects of rhLH were found on β-arrestin recruitment and on progesterone production compared to rhCG. Such a link was further supported by knockdown experiments. These pharmacological differences demonstrate that rhLH and rhCG act as natural biased agonists. The discovery of novel mechanisms associated with gonadotropin-specific action may ultimately help improve and personalize assisted reproduction technologies.
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17
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Riccetti L, De Pascali F, Gilioli L, Potì F, Giva LB, Marino M, Tagliavini S, Trenti T, Fanelli F, Mezzullo M, Pagotto U, Simoni M, Casarini L. Human LH and hCG stimulate differently the early signalling pathways but result in equal testosterone synthesis in mouse Leydig cells in vitro. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2017; 15:2. [PMID: 28056997 PMCID: PMC5217336 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-016-0224-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human luteinizing hormone (LH) and chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) are glycoprotein hormones regulating development and reproductive functions by acting on the same receptor (LHCGR). We compared the LH and hCG activity in gonadal cells from male mouse in vitro, i.e. primary Leydig cells, which is a common tool used for gonadotropin bioassay. Murine Leydig cells are naturally expressing the murine LH receptor (mLhr), which binds human LH/hCG. METHODS Cultured Leydig cells were treated by increasing doses of recombinant LH and hCG, and cell signaling, gene expression and steroid synthesis were evaluated. RESULTS We found that hCG is about 10-fold more potent than LH in cAMP recruitment, and slightly but significantly more potent on cAMP-dependent Erk1/2 phosphorylation. However, no significant differences occur between LH and hCG treatments, measured as activation of downstream signals, such as Creb phosphorylation, Stard1 gene expression and testosterone synthesis. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that the responses to human LH/hCG are only quantitatively and not qualitatively different in murine cells, at least in terms of cAMP and Erk1/2 activation, and equal in activating downstream steroidogenic events. This is at odds with what we previously described in human primary granulosa cells, where LHCGR mediates a different pattern of signaling cascades, depending on the natural ligand. This finding is relevant for gonadotropin quantification used in the official pharmacopoeia, which are based on murine, in vivo bioassay and rely on the evaluation of long-term, testosterone-dependent effects mediated by rodent receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Riccetti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Francesco De Pascali
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Lisa Gilioli
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Francesco Potì
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Parma, via Voltuno 39/E, 43125 Parma, Italy
| | - Lavinia Beatrice Giva
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Marco Marino
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Simonetta Tagliavini
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathological Anatomy, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Tommaso Trenti
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathological Anatomy, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Flaminia Fanelli
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Centre for Applied Biomedical Research (C.R.B.A.), S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital. Alma Mater University of Bologna, via G. Massarenti 9, I-40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Mezzullo
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Centre for Applied Biomedical Research (C.R.B.A.), S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital. Alma Mater University of Bologna, via G. Massarenti 9, I-40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Uberto Pagotto
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Centre for Applied Biomedical Research (C.R.B.A.), S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital. Alma Mater University of Bologna, via G. Massarenti 9, I-40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, Metabolism and Geriatrics, Azienda USL. NOCSAE, Via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
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18
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Santi D, Casarini L, Alviggi C, Simoni M. Efficacy of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Alone, FSH + Luteinizing Hormone, Human Menopausal Gonadotropin or FSH + Human Chorionic Gonadotropin on Assisted Reproductive Technology Outcomes in the "Personalized" Medicine Era: A Meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:114. [PMID: 28620352 PMCID: PMC5451514 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
SETTING Luteinizing hormone (LH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) act on the same receptor, activating different signal transduction pathways. The role of LH or hCG addition to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) as well as menopausal gonadotropins (human menopausal gonadotropin; hMG) in controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) is debated. OBJECTIVE To compare FSH + LH, or FSH + hCG or hMG vs. FSH alone on COS outcomes. DESIGN A meta-analysis according to PRISMA statement and Cochrane Collaboration was performed, including prospective, controlled clinical trials published until July 2016, enrolling women treated with FSH alone or combined with other gonadotropins. Trials enrolling women with polycystic ovarian syndrome were excluded (PROSPERO registration no. CRD42016048404). RESULTS Considering 70 studies, the administration of FSH alone resulted in higher number of oocytes retrieved than FSH + LH or hMG. The MII oocytes number did not change when FSH alone was compared to FSH + LH, FSH + hCG, or hMG. Embryo number and implantation rate were higher when hMG was used instead of FSH alone. Pregnancy rate was significantly higher in FSH + LH-treated group vs. others. Only 12 studies reported live birth rate, not providing protocol-dependent differences. Patients' stratification by GnRH agonist/antagonist identified patient subgroups benefiting from specific drug combinations. CONCLUSION In COS, FSH alone results in higher oocyte number. HMG improves the collection of mature oocytes, embryos, and increases implantation rate. On the other hand, LH addition leads to higher pregnancy rate. This study supports the concept of a different clinical action of gonadotropins in COS, reflecting previous in vitro data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Santi
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, Metabolism and Geriatrics, Azienda OU of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Carlo Alviggi
- Department of Neuroscience, Reproductive Science and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, Metabolism and Geriatrics, Azienda OU of Modena, Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- *Correspondence: Manuela Simoni,
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Kleinau G, Worth CL, Kreuchwig A, Biebermann H, Marcinkowski P, Scheerer P, Krause G. Structural-Functional Features of the Thyrotropin Receptor: A Class A G-Protein-Coupled Receptor at Work. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:86. [PMID: 28484426 PMCID: PMC5401882 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) is a member of the glycoprotein hormone receptors, a sub-group of class A G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). TSHR and its endogenous ligand thyrotropin (TSH) are of essential importance for growth and function of the thyroid gland and proper function of the TSH/TSHR system is pivotal for production and release of thyroid hormones. This receptor is also important with respect to pathophysiology, such as autoimmune (including ophthalmopathy) or non-autoimmune thyroid dysfunctions and cancer development. Pharmacological interventions directly targeting the TSHR should provide benefits to disease treatment compared to currently available therapies of dysfunctions associated with the TSHR or the thyroid gland. Upon TSHR activation, the molecular events conveying conformational changes from the extra- to the intracellular side of the cell across the membrane comprise reception, conversion, and amplification of the signal. These steps are highly dependent on structural features of this receptor and its intermolecular interaction partners, e.g., TSH, antibodies, small molecules, G-proteins, or arrestin. For better understanding of signal transduction, pathogenic mechanisms such as autoantibody action and mutational modifications or for developing new pharmacological strategies, it is essential to combine available structural data with functional information to generate homology models of the entire receptor. Although so far these insights are fragmental, in the past few decades essential contributions have been made to investigate in-depth the involved determinants, such as by structure determination via X-ray crystallography. This review summarizes available knowledge (as of December 2016) concerning the TSHR protein structure, associated functional aspects, and based on these insights we suggest several receptor complex models. Moreover, distinct TSHR properties will be highlighted in comparison to other class A GPCRs to understand the molecular activation mechanisms of this receptor comprehensively. Finally, limitations of current knowledge and lack of information are discussed highlighting the need for intensified efforts toward TSHR structure elucidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Kleinau
- Institute of Experimental Pediatric Endocrinology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
- Group Protein X-Ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Annika Kreuchwig
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Heike Biebermann
- Institute of Experimental Pediatric Endocrinology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Patrick Scheerer
- Group Protein X-Ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerd Krause
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Gerd Krause,
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Newton CL, Anderson RC, Katz AA, Millar RP. Loss-of-Function Mutations in the Human Luteinizing Hormone Receptor Predominantly Cause Intracellular Retention. Endocrinology 2016; 157:4364-4377. [PMID: 27533885 DOI: 10.1210/en.2016-1104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been identified for many endocrine hormone signaling deficiencies. Inactivating mutations can impair ligand binding, receptor activation/coupling to signaling pathways, or can cause receptor misfolding and consequent impaired expression at the cell membrane. Here we examine the cell surface expression, ligand binding, and signaling of a range of mutant human luteinizing hormone receptors (LHRs) identified as causing reproductive dysfunction in human patients. The data obtained reveal how mutations in GPCRs can have diverse and severely deleterious effects on receptor function. Furthermore, it was found that impaired functionality of the majority of the mutant LHRs was due to reduced expression at the cell surface (14/20) while only two mutations caused impaired binding affinity and two impaired in signaling. An additional two mutations were found to cause no impairment of receptor function. These data demonstrate that the majority of LHR mutations lead to intracellular retention and highlight the potential for novel pharmacological chaperone therapeutics that can "rescue" expression/function of retained mutant GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Louise Newton
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology (C.L.N., R.C.A., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Immunology (C.L.N), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; UCT/MRC Receptor Biology Research Unit, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (C.L.N., R.C.A., A.A.K., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa; Department of Zoology and Entomology (R.C.A), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa; SAMRC Gynaecology Cancer Research Centre (A.A.K), Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa; and Department of Physiology (R.P.M), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0007, South Africa
| | - Ross Calley Anderson
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology (C.L.N., R.C.A., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Immunology (C.L.N), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; UCT/MRC Receptor Biology Research Unit, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (C.L.N., R.C.A., A.A.K., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa; Department of Zoology and Entomology (R.C.A), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa; SAMRC Gynaecology Cancer Research Centre (A.A.K), Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa; and Department of Physiology (R.P.M), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0007, South Africa
| | - Arieh Anthony Katz
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology (C.L.N., R.C.A., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Immunology (C.L.N), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; UCT/MRC Receptor Biology Research Unit, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (C.L.N., R.C.A., A.A.K., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa; Department of Zoology and Entomology (R.C.A), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa; SAMRC Gynaecology Cancer Research Centre (A.A.K), Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa; and Department of Physiology (R.P.M), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0007, South Africa
| | - Robert Peter Millar
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology (C.L.N., R.C.A., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Immunology (C.L.N), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; UCT/MRC Receptor Biology Research Unit, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (C.L.N., R.C.A., A.A.K., R.P.M.), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa; Department of Zoology and Entomology (R.C.A), Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa; SAMRC Gynaecology Cancer Research Centre (A.A.K), Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa; and Department of Physiology (R.P.M), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0007, South Africa
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Dhar N, Mohan A, Thakur C, Chandra NR, Dighe RR. Dissecting the structural and functional features of the Luteinizing hormone receptor using receptor specific single chain fragment variables. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2016; 427:1-12. [PMID: 26940038 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The Luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) has a large extracellular domain (amino acid residues, a.a.1-355) and a transmembrane domain (TMD; a.a. 356-699), essential for hormone binding and signaling, respectively. The LHR hinge region (a.a. 256-355) connects the two domains and acts as an activating switch for the receptor by an unknown mechanism. LHR hinge-specific Single chain fragment variables (ScFv) stimulated cAMP production by the stable and transiently transfected cell lines expressing LHR in a hormone-independent manner and the C-terminal region of LHR hinge (a.a. 313-349) was identified as the probable epitope for one agonistic ScFv. This epitope attained a helical conformation upon agonistic ScFv binding and the activity of the ScFv was dependent on Y331 sulfation. ScFv was also able to activate TMD mutants, D578Y and A593P, reemphasizing the role of TM helix VI in LHR activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Dhar
- Department of Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Abhilash Mohan
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Chandrani Thakur
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Nagasuma R Chandra
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Rajan R Dighe
- Department of Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India.
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Casarini L, Brigante G, Simoni M, Santi D. Clinical Applications of Gonadotropins in the Female: Assisted Reproduction and Beyond. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2016; 143:85-119. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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