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Domínguez-Lobo MT, Roldán M, Gutiérrez-Diánez AM, Florencio FJ, Muro-Pastor MI. Double blocking of carbon metabolism causes a large increase of Calvin-Benson cycle compounds in cyanobacteria. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 195:1491-1505. [PMID: 38377468 PMCID: PMC11142378 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Carbon-flow-regulator A (CfrA) adapts carbon flux to nitrogen conditions in nondiazotrophic cyanobacteria. Under nitrogen deficiency, CfrA leads to the storage of excess carbon, which cannot combine with nitrogen, mainly as glycogen. cfrA overexpression from the arsenite-inducible, nitrogen-independent ParsB promoter allows analysis of the metabolic effects of CfrA accumulation. Considering that the main consequence of cfrA overexpression is glycogen accumulation, we examined carbon distribution in response to cfrA expression in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 strains impaired in synthesizing this polymer. We carried out a comparative phenotypic analysis to evaluate cfrA overexpression in the wild-type strain and in a mutant of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (ΔglgC), which is unable to synthesize glycogen. The accumulation of CfrA in the wild-type background caused a photosynthetic readjustment although growth was not affected. However, in a ΔglgC strain, growth decreased depending on CfrA accumulation and photosynthesis was severely affected. An elemental analysis of the H, C, and N content of cells revealed that cfrA expression in the wild-type caused an increase in the C/N ratio, due to decreased nitrogen assimilation. Metabolomic study indicated that these cells store sucrose and glycosylglycerol, in addition to the previously described glycogen accumulation. However, cells deficient in glycogen synthesis accumulated large amounts of Calvin-Benson cycle intermediates as cfrA was expressed. These cells also showed increased levels of some amino acids, mainly alanine, serine, valine, isoleucine, and leucine. The findings suggest that by controlling cfrA expression, in different conditions and strains, we could change the distribution of fixed carbon, with potential biotechnological benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miguel Roldán
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (IBVF), CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41092, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica Vegetal y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Alba María Gutiérrez-Diánez
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (IBVF), CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41092, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica Vegetal y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Florencio
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (IBVF), CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41092, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica Vegetal y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - María Isabel Muro-Pastor
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (IBVF), CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41092, Spain
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Usai G, Cordara A, Mazzocchi E, Re A, Fino D, Pirri CF, Menin B. Coupling dairy wastewaters for nutritional balancing and water recycling: sustainable heterologous 2-phenylethanol production by engineered cyanobacteria. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1359032. [PMID: 38497052 PMCID: PMC10940361 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1359032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Microalgae biotechnology is hampered by the high production costs and the massive usage of water during large-volume cultivations. These drawbacks can be softened by the production of high-value compounds and by adopting metabolic engineering strategies to improve their performances and productivity. Today, the most sustainable approach is the exploitation of industrial wastewaters for microalgae cultivation, which couples valuable biomass production with water resource recovery. Among the food processing sectors, the dairy industry generates the largest volume of wastewaters through the manufacturing process. These effluents are typically rich in dissolved organic matter and nutrients, which make it a challenging and expensive waste stream for companies to manage. Nevertheless, these rich wastewaters represent an appealing resource for microalgal biotechnology. In this study, we propose a sustainable approach for high-value compound production from dairy wastewaters through cyanobacteria. This strategy is based on a metabolically engineered strain of the model cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 (already published elsewhere) for 2-phenylethanol (2-PE). 2-PE is a high-value aromatic compound that is widely employed as a fragrance in the food and cosmetics industry thanks to its pleasant floral scent. First, we qualitatively assessed the impact of four dairy effluents on cyanobacterial growth to identify the most promising substrates. Both tank-washing water and the liquid effluent of exhausted sludge resulted as suitable nutrient sources. Thus, we created an ideal buffer system by combining the two wastewaters while simultaneously providing balanced nutrition and completely avoiding the need for fresh water. The combination of 75% liquid effluent of exhausted sludge and 25% tank-washing water with a fine-tuning ammonium supplementation yielded 180 mg L-1 of 2-PE and a biomass concentration of 0.6 gDW L-1 within 10 days. The mixture of 90% exhausted sludge and 10% washing water produced the highest yield of 2-PE (205 mg L-1) and biomass accumulation (0.7 gDW L-1), although in 16 days. Through these treatments, the phosphates were completely consumed, and nitrogen was removed in a range of 74%-77%. Overall, our approach significantly valorized water recycling and the exploitation of valuable wastewaters to circularly produce marketable compounds via microalgae biotechnology, laying a promising groundwork for subsequent implementation and scale-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Usai
- Centre for Sustainable Future Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Turin, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology—DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cordara
- Centre for Sustainable Future Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Turin, Italy
- Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering—DIATI, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Elena Mazzocchi
- Centre for Sustainable Future Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Turin, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology—DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Angela Re
- Department of Applied Science and Technology—DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Debora Fino
- Department of Applied Science and Technology—DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Candido Fabrizio Pirri
- Centre for Sustainable Future Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Turin, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology—DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Barbara Menin
- Centre for Sustainable Future Technologies, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Turin, Italy
- Istituto di Biologia e Biotecnologia Agraria, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche IBBA-CNR, Milan, Italy
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Recent progress in the synthesis of advanced biofuel and bioproducts. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2023; 80:102913. [PMID: 36854202 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2023.102913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Energy is one of the most complex fields of study and an issue that influences nearly every aspect of modern life. Over the past century, combustion of fossil fuels, particularly in the transportation sector, has been the dominant form of energy release. Refining of petroleum and natural gas into liquid transportation fuels is also the centerpiece of the modern chemical industry used to produce materials, solvents, and other consumer goods. In the face of global climate change, the world is searching for alternative, sustainable means of producing energy carriers and chemical building blocks. The use of biofuels in engines predates modern refinery optimization and today represents a small but significant fraction of liquid transportation fuels burnt each year. Similarly, white biotechnology has been used to produce many natural products through fermentation. The evolution of recombinant DNA technology into modern synthetic biology has expanded the scope of biofuels and bioproducts that can be made by biocatalysts. This opinion examines the current trends in this research space, highlighting the substantial growth in computational tools and the growing influence of renewable electricity in the design of metabolic engineering strategies. In short, advanced biofuel and bioproduct synthesis remains a vibrant and critically important field of study whose focus is shifting away from the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass toward a broader consideration of how to reduce carbon dioxide to fuels and chemical products.
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Barone GD, Cernava T, Ullmann J, Liu J, Lio E, Germann AT, Nakielski A, Russo DA, Chavkin T, Knufmann K, Tripodi F, Coccetti P, Secundo F, Fu P, Pfleger B, Axmann IM, Lindblad P. Recent developments in the production and utilization of photosynthetic microorganisms for food applications. Heliyon 2023; 9:e14708. [PMID: 37151658 PMCID: PMC10161259 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing use of photosynthetic microorganisms for food and food-related applications is driving related biotechnology research forward. Increasing consumer acceptance, high sustainability, demand of eco-friendly sources for food, and considerable global economic concern are among the main factors to enhance the focus on the novel foods. In the cases of not toxic strains, photosynthetic microorganisms not only provide a source of sustainable nutrients but are also potentially healthy. Several published studies showed that microalgae are sources of accessible protein and fatty acids. More than 400 manuscripts were published per year in the last 4 years. Furthermore, industrial approaches utilizing these microorganisms are resulting in new jobs and services. This is in line with the global strategy for bioeconomy that aims to support sustainable development of bio-based sectors. Despite the recognized potential of the microalgal biomass value chain, significant knowledge gaps still exist especially regarding their optimized production and utilization. This review highlights the potential of microalgae and cyanobacteria for food and food-related applications as well as their market size. The chosen topics also include advanced production as mixed microbial communities, production of high-value biomolecules, photoproduction of terpenoid flavoring compounds, their utilization for sustainable agriculture, application as source of nutrients in space, and a comparison with heterotrophic microorganisms like yeast to better evaluate their advantages over existing nutrient sources. This comprehensive assessment should stimulate further interest in this highly relevant research topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni D. Barone
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 14, 8010, Graz, Austria
- Corresponding author.
| | - Tomislav Cernava
- Institute of Environmental Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/I, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Jörg Ullmann
- Roquette Klötze GmbH & Co. KG, Lockstedter Chaussee 1, D-38486, Klötze, Germany
| | - Jing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea Hainan University, 58 Renmin Avenue, Meilan District, Haikou, Hainan Province, 570228, PR China
| | - Elia Lio
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Technologies (SCITEC) “Giulio Natta” Italian National Research Council (CNR), via Mario Bianco 9, 20131, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna T. Germann
- Synthetic Microbiology, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas Nakielski
- Synthetic Microbiology, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - David A. Russo
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute for Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Bioorganic Analytics, Lessingstr. 8, D-07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Ted Chavkin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | - Farida Tripodi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126, Milano, Italy
| | - Paola Coccetti
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126, Milano, Italy
| | - Francesco Secundo
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Technologies (SCITEC) “Giulio Natta” Italian National Research Council (CNR), via Mario Bianco 9, 20131, Milan, Italy
| | - Pengcheng Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea Hainan University, 58 Renmin Avenue, Meilan District, Haikou, Hainan Province, 570228, PR China
| | - Brian Pfleger
- Knufmann GmbH, Bergstraße 23, D-38486, Klötze, Germany
| | - Ilka M. Axmann
- Synthetic Microbiology, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, D-40001, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Corresponding author. Synthetic Microbiology, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Peter Lindblad
- Microbial Chemistry, Department of Chemistry–Ångström, Uppsala University, Box 523, SE-75120, Uppsala, Sweden
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Sukkasam N, Leksingto J, Incharoensakdi A, Monshupanee T. Chemical Triggering Cyanobacterial Glycogen Accumulation: Methyl Viologen Treatment Increases Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 Glycogen Storage by Enhancing Levels of Gene Transcript and Substrates in Glycogen Synthesis. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 63:2027-2041. [PMID: 36197756 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcac136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Two-stage cultivation is effective for glycogen production by cyanobacteria. Cells were first grown under adequate nitrate supply (BG11) to increase biomass and subsequently transferred to nitrogen deprivation (-N) to stimulate glycogen accumulation. However, the two-stage method is time-consuming and requires extensive energy. Thus, one-stage cultivation that enables both cell growth and glycogen accumulation is advantageous. Such one-stage method could be achieved using a chemical triggering glycogen storage. However, there is a limited study on such chemicals. Here, nine compounds previously reported to affect cyanobacterial cellular functions were examined in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. 2-Phenylethanol, phenoxyethanol, 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea and methyl viologen can stimulate glycogen accumulation. The oxidative stress agent, methyl viologen significantly increased glycogen levels up to 57% and 69% [w/w dry weight (DW)] under BG11 and -N cultivation, respectively. One-stage cultivation where methyl viologen was directly added to the pre-grown culture enhanced glycogen storage to 53% (w/w DW), compared to the 10% (w/w DW) glycogen level of the control cells without methyl viologen. Methyl viologen treatment reduced the contents of total proteins (including phycobiliproteins) but caused increased transcript levels of glycogen synthetic genes and elevated levels of metabolite substrates for glycogen synthesis. Metabolomic results suggested that upon methyl viologen treatment, proteins degraded to amino acids, some of which could be used as a carbon source for glycogen synthesis. Results of oxygen evolution and metabolomic analysis suggested that photosynthesis and carbon fixation were not completely inhibited upon methyl viologen treatment, and these two processes may partially generate upstream metabolites required for glycogen synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nannaphat Sukkasam
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Program in Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Jidapa Leksingto
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Aran Incharoensakdi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Academy of Science, Royal Society of Thailand, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | - Tanakarn Monshupanee
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Program in Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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6
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Introduction of NADH-dependent nitrate assimilation in Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 improves photosynthetic production of 2-methyl-1-butanol and isobutanol. Metab Eng 2022; 69:87-97. [PMID: 34774761 PMCID: PMC9026717 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2021.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria hold promise for renewable chemical production due to their photosynthetic nature, but engineered strains frequently display poor production characteristics. These difficulties likely arise in part due to the distinctive photoautotrophic metabolism of cyanobacteria. In this work, we apply a genome-scale metabolic model of the cyanobacteria Synechococus sp. PCC 7002 to identify strain designs accounting for this unique metabolism that are predicted to improve the production of various biofuel alcohols (e.g. 2-methyl-1-butanol, isobutanol, and 1-butanol) synthesized via an engineered biosynthesis pathway. Using the model, we identify that the introduction of a large, non-native NADH-demand into PCC 7002's metabolic network is predicted to enhance production of these alcohols by promoting NADH-generating reactions upstream of the production pathways. To test this, we construct strains of PCC 7002 that utilize a heterologous, NADH-dependent nitrite reductase in place of the native, ferredoxin-dependent enzyme to create an NADH-demand in the cells when grown on nitrate-containing media. We find that photosynthetic production of both isobutanol and 2-methyl-1-butanol is significantly improved in the engineered strain background relative to that in a wild-type background. We additionally identify that the use of high-nutrient media leads to a substantial prolongment of the production curve in our alcohol production strains. The metabolic engineering strategy identified and tested in this work presents a novel approach to engineer cyanobacterial production strains that takes advantage of a unique aspect of their metabolism and serves as a basis on which to further develop strains with improved production of these alcohols and related products.
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Mittermair S, Lakatos G, Nicoletti C, Ranglová K, Manoel JC, Grivalský T, Kozhan DM, Masojídek J, Richter J. Impact of glgA1, glgA2 or glgC overexpression on growth and glycogen production in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. J Biotechnol 2021; 340:47-56. [PMID: 34481001 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2021.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Low production rates are still one limiting factor for the industrial climate-neutral production of biovaluable compounds in cyanobacteria. Next to optimized cultivation conditions, new production strategies are required. Hence, the use of established molecular tools could lead to increased product yields in the cyanobacterial model organism Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. Its main storage compound glycogen was chosen to be increased by the use of these tools. In this study, the three genes glgC, glgA1 and glgA2, which are part of the glycogen synthesis pathway, were combined with the Pcpc560 promoter and the neutral cloning site NSC1. The complete genome integration, protein formation, biomass production and glycogen accumulation were determined to select the most productive transformants. The overexpression of glgA2 did not increase the biomass or glycogen production in short-term trials compared to the other two genes but caused transformants death in long-term trials. The transformants glgA1_11 and glgC_2 showed significantly increased biomass (1.6-fold - 1.7-fold) and glycogen production (3.5-fold - 4-fold) compared to the wild type after 96 h making them a promising energy source for further applications. Those could include for example a two-stage production process, with first energy production (glycogen) and second increased product formation (e.g. ethanol).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Mittermair
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, AG Biosciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Roseggerstraße 15, 4600 Wels, Austria
| | - Gergely Lakatos
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 37901 Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Cecilia Nicoletti
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, AG Biosciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Roseggerstraße 15, 4600 Wels, Austria
| | - Karolína Ranglová
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 37901 Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - João Câmara Manoel
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 37901 Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Grivalský
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 37901 Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Daniyar Malikuly Kozhan
- Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, 71 Al-Farabi Ave., Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan
| | - Jiří Masojídek
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 37901 Třeboň, Czech Republic
| | - Juliane Richter
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, AG Biosciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Roseggerstraße 15, 4600 Wels, Austria.
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Fradinho J, Allegue LD, Ventura M, Melero JA, Reis MAM, Puyol D. Up-scale challenges on biopolymer production from waste streams by Purple Phototrophic Bacteria mixed cultures: A critical review. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 327:124820. [PMID: 33578354 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The increasing volume of waste streams require new biological technologies that can address pollution concerns while offering sustainable products. Purple phototrophic bacteria (PPB) are very versatile organisms that present a unique metabolism that allows them to adapt to a variety of environments, including the most complex waste streams. Their successful adaptation to such demanding conditions is partly the result of internal polymers accumulation which can be stored for electron/energy balance or as carbon and nutrients reserves for deprivation periods. Polyhydroxyalkanoates, glycogen, sulphur and polyphosphate are examples of polymers produced by PPB that can be economically explored due to their applications in the plastic, energy and fertilizers sectors. Their large-scale production implies the outdoor operation of PPB systems which brings new challenges, identified in this review. An overview of the current PPB polymer producing technologies and prospects for their future development is also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fradinho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - L D Allegue
- Group of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (GIQA), Higher School of Experimental Sciences and Technology (ESCET), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Ventura
- Group of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (GIQA), Higher School of Experimental Sciences and Technology (ESCET), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - J A Melero
- Group of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (GIQA), Higher School of Experimental Sciences and Technology (ESCET), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - M A M Reis
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - D Puyol
- Group of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (GIQA), Higher School of Experimental Sciences and Technology (ESCET), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain.
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