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De Vreese S, Orekhova K, Morell M, Gerussi T, Graïc JM. Neuroanatomy of the Cetacean Sensory Systems. Animals (Basel) 2023; 14:66. [PMID: 38200796 PMCID: PMC10778493 DOI: 10.3390/ani14010066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Cetaceans have undergone profound sensory adaptations in response to their aquatic environment during evolution. These adaptations are characterised by anatomo-functional changes in the classically defined sensory systems, shaping their neuroanatomy accordingly. This review offers a concise and up-to-date overview of our current understanding of the neuroanatomy associated with cetacean sensory systems. It encompasses a wide spectrum, ranging from the peripheral sensory cells responsible for detecting environmental cues, to the intricate structures within the central nervous system that process and interpret sensory information. Despite considerable progress in this field, numerous knowledge gaps persist, impeding a comprehensive and integrated understanding of their sensory adaptations, and through them, of their sensory perspective. By synthesising recent advances in neuroanatomical research, this review aims to shed light on the intricate sensory alterations that differentiate cetaceans from other mammals and allow them to thrive in the marine environment. Furthermore, it highlights pertinent knowledge gaps and invites future investigations to deepen our understanding of the complex processes in cetacean sensory ecology and anatomy, physiology and pathology in the scope of conservation biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen De Vreese
- Laboratory of Applied Bioacoustics (LAB), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya-BarcelonaTech (UPC), 08800 Vilanova i la Geltrú, Spain
| | - Ksenia Orekhova
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (K.O.); (T.G.); (J.-M.G.)
| | - Maria Morell
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research (ITAW), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 25761 Büsum, Germany;
| | - Tommaso Gerussi
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (K.O.); (T.G.); (J.-M.G.)
| | - Jean-Marie Graïc
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (K.O.); (T.G.); (J.-M.G.)
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2
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Davies JR, Garcia-Pelegrin E. Bottlenose dolphins are sensitive to human attentional features, including eye functionality. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12565. [PMID: 37532744 PMCID: PMC10397197 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39031-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to attribute attentional states to other individuals is a highly adaptive socio-cognitive skill and thus may have evolved in many social species. However, whilst humans excel in this ability, even chimpanzees appear to not accurately understand how visual attention works, particularly in regard to the function of eyes. The complex socio-ecological background and socio-cognitive skill-set of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.), alongside the specialised training that captive dolphins typically undergo, make them an especially relevant candidate for an investigation into their sensitivity to human attentional states. Therefore, we tested 8 bottlenose dolphins on an object retrieval task. The dolphins were instructed to fetch an object by a trainer under various attentional state conditions involving the trainer's eyes and face orientation: 'not looking', 'half looking', 'eyes open', and 'eyes closed'. As the dolphins showed an increased latency to retrieve the object in conditions where the trainer's head and eyes cued a lack of attention to the dolphin, particularly when comparing 'eyes open' vs 'eyes closed' conditions, we demonstrate that dolphins can be sensitive to human attentional features, namely the functionality of eyes. This study supports growing evidence that dolphins possess highly complex cognitive abilities, particularly those in the social domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Davies
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
| | - Elias Garcia-Pelegrin
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117572, Singapore.
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3
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Zamorano-Abramson J, Michon M, Hernández-Lloreda MV, Aboitiz F. Multimodal imitative learning and synchrony in cetaceans: A model for speech and singing evolution. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1061381. [PMID: 37138983 PMCID: PMC10150787 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1061381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multimodal imitation of actions, gestures and vocal production is a hallmark of the evolution of human communication, as both, vocal learning and visual-gestural imitation, were crucial factors that facilitated the evolution of speech and singing. Comparative evidence has revealed that humans are an odd case in this respect, as the case for multimodal imitation is barely documented in non-human animals. While there is evidence of vocal learning in birds and in mammals like bats, elephants and marine mammals, evidence in both domains, vocal and gestural, exists for two Psittacine birds (budgerigars and grey parrots) and cetaceans only. Moreover, it draws attention to the apparent absence of vocal imitation (with just a few cases reported for vocal fold control in an orangutan and a gorilla and a prolonged development of vocal plasticity in marmosets) and even for imitation of intransitive actions (not object related) in monkeys and apes in the wild. Even after training, the evidence for productive or "true imitation" (copy of a novel behavior, i.e., not pre-existent in the observer's behavioral repertoire) in both domains is scarce. Here we review the evidence of multimodal imitation in cetaceans, one of the few living mammalian species that have been reported to display multimodal imitative learning besides humans, and their role in sociality, communication and group cultures. We propose that cetacean multimodal imitation was acquired in parallel with the evolution and development of behavioral synchrony and multimodal organization of sensorimotor information, supporting volitional motor control of their vocal system and audio-echoic-visual voices, body posture and movement integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Zamorano-Abramson
- Centro de Investigación en Complejidad Social, Facultad de Gobierno, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile
- Grupo UCM de Psicobiología Social, Evolutiva y Comparada, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: José Zamorano-Abramson,
| | - Maëva Michon
- Centro de Estudios en Neurociencia Humana y Neuropsicología, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratory for Cognitive and Evolutionary Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Interdisciplinary Center for Neuroscience, Pontificia Universidad Católica de, Santiago, Chile
- Maëva Michon,
| | - Ma Victoria Hernández-Lloreda
- Grupo UCM de Psicobiología Social, Evolutiva y Comparada, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las Ciencias del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicología, Campus de Somosaguas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Aboitiz
- Laboratory for Cognitive and Evolutionary Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Interdisciplinary Center for Neuroscience, Pontificia Universidad Católica de, Santiago, Chile
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Lambert C, Authier M, Blanchard A, Dorémus G, Laran S, Van Canneyt O, Spitz J. Delayed response to environmental conditions and infra-seasonal dynamics of the short-beaked common dolphin distribution. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220379. [PMID: 36465685 PMCID: PMC9709568 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Cetaceans adjust their distribution and abundance to encountered conditions across years and seasons, but we poorly understand such small-scale changes for many species, especially in winter. Crucial challenges confront some populations during this season, such as the high levels of fisheries-induced mortality faced by the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) in the Northeast Atlantic shelves. For such species, understanding the winter fine-scale dynamics is crucial. We aimed to identify the dolphin distribution drivers during the winters of 2020 and 2021, with a focus on determining the lag between changes in oceanographic conditions and dolphin distribution. The changes were related to temporal delays specific to the nature and cascading effects that oceanographic processes had on the trophic chain. By determining the most important conditions and lags to dolphin distributions, we shed light on the poorly understood intrusions of dolphins within coastal waters during winter: they displayed a strong preference for the coastal-shelf waters front and extensively followed its spatial variations, with their overall densities increasing over the period and peaking in March-April. The results presented here provide invaluable information on the winter distribution dynamics and should inform management decisions to help reduce the unsustainable mortalities of this species in the by-catch of fisheries.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Lambert
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
- Centre d’Etudes Biologiques de Chizé UMR 7372 CNRS-LRUniv, 405 Rte de Prissé la Charrière, Villiers-en-bois 79360, France
- Littoral ENvironnement et Sociétés UMR 7266 CNRs-LRUniv, 2 Rue Olympe de Gouge, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - M. Authier
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - A. Blanchard
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - G. Dorémus
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - S. Laran
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - O. Van Canneyt
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - J. Spitz
- Observatoire Pelagis UAR 3462 CNRS-LRUniv, 5 allée de l’Océan, La Rochelle 17000, France
- Centre d’Etudes Biologiques de Chizé UMR 7372 CNRS-LRUniv, 405 Rte de Prissé la Charrière, Villiers-en-bois 79360, France
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Enrichment with classical music enhances affiliative behaviours in bottlenose dolphin. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Bouchard B, Barnagaud JY, Verborgh P, Gauffier P, Campagna S, Célérier A. A field study of chemical senses in bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:668-679. [PMID: 34260154 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
For most marine vertebrates, chemical cues provide crucial information during navigation and foraging, but their use by cetaceans is still poorly understood. In contrast to baleen whales, toothed whales (odontocetes) are scarcely equipped for chemoreception: they lack the conventional anatomical structures (i.e., olfactory epithelium, nerves and bulbs) involved in olfaction and have reduced taste buds on the tongue. Several behavioral studies have however shown that captive dolphins can perceive chemical solutions, including odorants, in their oral cavity. To investigate whether odontocetes could use infochemicals in their foraging ecology, we implemented a behavioral response experiment in wild bottlenose dolphins and long-finned pilot whales. We tested dimethyl sulfide (DMS) as a potentially attractive stimulus since it is a chemical signature of highly productive marine areas, known to attract several marine predators including fishes and seabirds. We assessed cetacean responses to DMS exposure by analyzing their movements and surface behaviors recorded by onboard observers. In both species, results did not reveal any significant attraction or behavioral reaction toward DMS when compared to a control chemical stimulus, apart from a short-distance response in bottlenose dolphins. These results suggest that while odontocetes may perceive DMS in water, it apparently does not play a significant role in their foraging ecology. Testing potentially more attractive compounds such as prey extracts with the present method and analyzing surface, underwater and acoustic responses would provide further insights on odontocete feeding behavior. It would also provide valuable clues to studies on the anatomical structures involved in their chemosenses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Philippe Verborgh
- CIRCE, Conservation, Information and Research on Cetaceans, Algeciras-Pelayo, Spain
| | - Pauline Gauffier
- CIRCE, Conservation, Information and Research on Cetaceans, Algeciras-Pelayo, Spain
| | - Sylvie Campagna
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Université de Nîmes, Montpellier, France
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Cohen KE, Flammang BE, Crawford CH, Hernandez LP. Knowing when to stick: touch receptors found in the remora adhesive disc. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:190990. [PMID: 32218935 PMCID: PMC7029896 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.190990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Remoras are fishes that piggyback onto larger marine fauna via an adhesive disc to increase locomotor efficiency, likelihood of finding mates and access to prey. Attaching rapidly to a large, fast-moving host is no easy task, and while research to date has focused on how the disc supports adhesion, no attention has been paid to how or if remoras are able to sense attachment. We identified push-rod-like mechanoreceptor complexes embedded in the soft lip of the remora adhesive disc that are known in other organisms to respond to touch and shear forces. This is, to our knowledge, the first time such mechanoreceptor complexes are described in fishes as they were only known previously in monotremes. The presence of push-rod-like mechanoreceptor complexes suggests not only that fishes may be able to sense their environment in ways not heretofore described but that specialized tactile mechanoreceptor complexes may be a more basal vertebrate feature than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karly E. Cohen
- Biology Department, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Science and Engineering Hall, Suite 6000, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Brooke E. Flammang
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Callie H. Crawford
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - L. Patricia Hernandez
- Biology Department, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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8
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Cohen KE, Flammang BE, Crawford CH, Hernandez LP. Knowing when to stick: touch receptors found in the remora adhesive disc. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020. [PMID: 32218935 DOI: 10.5061/dryad.t9d744k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Remoras are fishes that piggyback onto larger marine fauna via an adhesive disc to increase locomotor efficiency, likelihood of finding mates and access to prey. Attaching rapidly to a large, fast-moving host is no easy task, and while research to date has focused on how the disc supports adhesion, no attention has been paid to how or if remoras are able to sense attachment. We identified push-rod-like mechanoreceptor complexes embedded in the soft lip of the remora adhesive disc that are known in other organisms to respond to touch and shear forces. This is, to our knowledge, the first time such mechanoreceptor complexes are described in fishes as they were only known previously in monotremes. The presence of push-rod-like mechanoreceptor complexes suggests not only that fishes may be able to sense their environment in ways not heretofore described but that specialized tactile mechanoreceptor complexes may be a more basal vertebrate feature than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karly E Cohen
- Biology Department, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Science and Engineering Hall, Suite 6000, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Brooke E Flammang
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Callie H Crawford
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - L Patricia Hernandez
- Biology Department, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Lauriano E, Pergolizzi S, Aragona M, Spanò N, Guerrera M, Capillo G, Faggio C. Merkel cells immunohistochemical study in striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) skin. Tissue Cell 2019; 56:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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10
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Yohe LR, Hoffmann S, Curtis A. Vomeronasal and Olfactory Structures in Bats Revealed by DiceCT Clarify Genetic Evidence of Function. Front Neuroanat 2018; 12:32. [PMID: 29867373 PMCID: PMC5953337 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The degree to which molecular and morphological loss of function occurs synchronously during the vestigialization of traits is not well understood. The mammalian vomeronasal system, a sense critical for mediating many social and reproductive behaviors, is highly conserved across mammals. New World Leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae) are under strong selection to maintain a functional vomeronasal system such that most phyllostomids possess a distinct vomeronasal organ and an intact TRPC2, a gene encoding a protein primarily involved in vomeronasal sensory neuron signal transduction. Recent genetic evidence, however, shows that TRPC2 is a pseudogene in some Caribbean nectarivorous phyllostomids. The loss-of-function mutations suggest the sensory neural tissue of the vomeronasal organ is absent in these species despite strong selection on this gene in its mainland relatives, but the anatomy was unknown in most Caribbean nectarivorous phyllostomids until this study. We used diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) to test whether the vomeronasal and main olfactory anatomy of several phyllostomid species matched genetic evidence of function, providing insight into whether loss of a structure is linked to pseudogenization of a molecular component of the system. The vomeronasal organ is indeed rudimentary or absent in species with a disrupted TRPC2 gene. Caribbean nectar-feeders also exhibit derived olfactory turbinal morphology and a large olfactory recess that differs from closely related bats that have an intact vomeronasal organ, which may hint that the main olfactory system may compensate for loss. We emphasize non-invasive diceCT is capable of detecting the vomeronasal organ, providing a feasible approach for quantifying mammalian chemosensory anatomy across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Simone Hoffmann
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY, United States
| | - Abigail Curtis
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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Kelkar N, Dey S, Deshpande K, Choudhary SK, Dey S, Morisaka T. Foraging and feeding ecology ofPlatanista: an integrative review. Mamm Rev 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nachiket Kelkar
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE); Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO Bangalore 560064 Karnataka India
| | - Subhasis Dey
- Vikramshila Biodiversity Research & Education Centre; T.M. Bhagalpur University; Bhagalpur 812007 Bihar India
| | - Kadambari Deshpande
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE); Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO Bangalore 560064 Karnataka India
| | - Sunil Kumar Choudhary
- Vikramshila Biodiversity Research & Education Centre; T.M. Bhagalpur University; Bhagalpur 812007 Bihar India
| | - Sushant Dey
- Vikramshila Biodiversity Research & Education Centre; T.M. Bhagalpur University; Bhagalpur 812007 Bihar India
| | - Tadamichi Morisaka
- Graduate School of Bioresources; Mie University; 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu City Mie Prefecture 514-8507 Japan
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Ladich F, Winkler H. Acoustic communication in terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates. J Exp Biol 2017; 220:2306-2317. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.132944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Sound propagates much faster and over larger distances in water than in air, mainly because of differences in the density of these media. This raises the question of whether terrestrial (land mammals, birds) and (semi-)aquatic animals (frogs, fishes, cetaceans) differ fundamentally in the way they communicate acoustically. Terrestrial vertebrates primarily produce sounds by vibrating vocal tissue (folds) directly in an airflow. This mechanism has been modified in frogs and cetaceans, whereas fishes generate sounds in quite different ways mainly by utilizing the swimbladder or pectoral fins. On land, vertebrates pick up sounds with light tympana, whereas other mechanisms have had to evolve underwater. Furthermore, fishes differ from all other vertebrates by not having an inner ear end organ devoted exclusively to hearing. Comparing acoustic communication within and between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates reveals that there is no ‘aquatic way’ of sound communication, as compared with a more uniform terrestrial one. Birds and mammals display rich acoustic communication behaviour, which reflects their highly developed cognitive and social capabilities. In contrast, acoustic signaling seems to be the exception in fishes, and is obviously limited to short distances and to substrate-breeding species, whereas all cetaceans communicate acoustically and, because of their predominantly pelagic lifestyle, exploit the benefits of sound propagation in a dense, obstacle-free medium that provides fast and almost lossless signal transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Ladich
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Hans Winkler
- Konrad Lorenz-Institute of Comparative Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna 1160, Austria
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Kremers D, Célérier A, Schaal B, Campagna S, Trabalon M, Böye M, Hausberger M, Lemasson A. Sensory Perception in Cetaceans: Part II—Promising Experimental Approaches to Study Chemoreception in Dolphins. Front Ecol Evol 2016. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2016.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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