1
|
Villarreal L, Witzany G. Self-empowerment of life through RNA networks, cells and viruses. F1000Res 2023; 12:138. [PMID: 36785664 PMCID: PMC9918806 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.130300.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of the key players in evolution and of the development of all organisms in all domains of life has been aided by current knowledge about RNA stem-loop groups, their proposed interaction motifs in an early RNA world and their regulative roles in all steps and substeps of nearly all cellular processes, such as replication, transcription, translation, repair, immunity and epigenetic marking. Cooperative evolution was enabled by promiscuous interactions between single-stranded regions in the loops of naturally forming stem-loop structures in RNAs. It was also shown that cooperative RNA stem-loops outcompete selfish ones and provide foundational self-constructive groups (ribosome, editosome, spliceosome, etc.). Self-empowerment from abiotic matter to biological behavior does not just occur at the beginning of biological evolution; it is also essential for all levels of socially interacting RNAs, cells and viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villarreal
- Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Guenther Witzany
- Telos - Philosophische Praxis, Buermoos, Salzburg, 5111, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Villarreal L, Witzany G. Self-empowerment of life through RNA networks, cells and viruses. F1000Res 2023; 12:138. [PMID: 36785664 PMCID: PMC9918806 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.130300.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of the key players in evolution and of the development of all organisms in all domains of life has been aided by current knowledge about RNA stem-loop groups, their proposed interaction motifs in an early RNA world and their regulative roles in all steps and substeps of nearly all cellular processes, such as replication, transcription, translation, repair, immunity and epigenetic marking. Cooperative evolution was enabled by promiscuous interactions between single-stranded regions in the loops of naturally forming stem-loop structures in RNAs. It was also shown that cooperative RNA stem-loops outcompete selfish ones and provide foundational self-constructive groups (ribosome, editosome, spliceosome, etc.). Self-empowerment from abiotic matter to biological behavior does not just occur at the beginning of biological evolution; it is also essential for all levels of socially interacting RNAs, cells and viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villarreal
- Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Guenther Witzany
- Telos - Philosophische Praxis, Buermoos, Salzburg, 5111, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Papolu PK, Ramakrishnan M, Mullasseri S, Kalendar R, Wei Q, Zou L, Ahmad Z, Vinod KK, Yang P, Zhou M. Retrotransposons: How the continuous evolutionary front shapes plant genomes for response to heat stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1064847. [PMID: 36570931 PMCID: PMC9780303 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1064847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR retrotransposons) are the most abundant group of mobile genetic elements in eukaryotic genomes and are essential in organizing genomic architecture and phenotypic variations. The diverse families of retrotransposons are related to retroviruses. As retrotransposable elements are dispersed and ubiquitous, their "copy-out and paste-in" life cycle of replicative transposition leads to new genome insertions without the excision of the original element. The overall structure of retrotransposons and the domains responsible for the various phases of their replication is highly conserved in all eukaryotes. The two major superfamilies of LTR retrotransposons, Ty1/Copia and Ty3/Gypsy, are distinguished and dispersed across the chromosomes of higher plants. Members of these superfamilies can increase in copy number and are often activated by various biotic and abiotic stresses due to retrotransposition bursts. LTR retrotransposons are important drivers of species diversity and exhibit great variety in structure, size, and mechanisms of transposition, making them important putative actors in genome evolution. Additionally, LTR retrotransposons influence the gene expression patterns of adjacent genes by modulating potential small interfering RNA (siRNA) and RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) pathways. Furthermore, comparative and evolutionary analysis of the most important crop genome sequences and advanced technologies have elucidated the epigenetics and structural and functional modifications driven by LTR retrotransposon during speciation. However, mechanistic insights into LTR retrotransposons remain obscure in plant development due to a lack of advancement in high throughput technologies. In this review, we focus on the key role of LTR retrotransposons response in plants during heat stress, the role of centromeric LTR retrotransposons, and the role of LTR retrotransposon markers in genome expression and evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep K. Papolu
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Muthusamy Ramakrishnan
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Bamboo Research Institute, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Subtropical Forest Biodiversity Conservation, College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Sileesh Mullasseri
- Department of Zoology, St. Albert’s College (Autonomous), Kochi, Kerala, India
| | - Ruslan Kalendar
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science HiLIFE, Biocenter 3, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- National Laboratory Astana, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan
| | - Qiang Wei
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Bamboo Research Institute, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Subtropical Forest Biodiversity Conservation, College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Long−Hai Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zishan Ahmad
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Bamboo Research Institute, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Subtropical Forest Biodiversity Conservation, College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | | | - Ping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Bamboo Resources and High-Efficiency Utilization, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mingbing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Bamboo Industry Institute, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Bamboo Resources and High-Efficiency Utilization, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gantuz M, Morales A, Bertoldi MV, Ibañez VN, Duarte PF, Marfil CF, Masuelli RW. Hybridization and polyploidization effects on LTR-retrotransposon activation in potato genome. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2022; 135:81-92. [PMID: 34674075 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-021-01354-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hybridization and polyploidization are major forces in plant evolution and potatoes are not an exception. It is proposed that the proliferation of Long Terminal Repeat-retrotransposons (LTR-RT) is related to genome reorganization caused by hybridization and/or polyploidization. The main purpose of the present work was to evaluate the effect of interspecific hybridization and polyploidization on the activation of LTR-RT. We evaluated the proliferation of putative active LTR-RT in a diploid hybrid between the cultivated potato Solanum tuberosum and the wild diploid potato species S. kurtzianum, allotetraploid lines derived from this interspecific hybrid and S. kurtzianum autotetraploid lines (ktz-autotetraploid) using the S-SAP (sequence-specific amplified polymorphism) technique and normalized copy number determination by qPCR. Twenty-nine LTR-RT copies were activated in the hybrid and present in the allotetraploid lines. Major LTR-RT activity was detected in Copia-27, Copia-12, Copia-14 and, Gypsy-22. According to our results, LTR-RT copies were activated principally in the hybrid, there was no activation in allotetraploid lines and only one copy was activated in the autotetraploid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Gantuz
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina.
| | - Andrés Morales
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Luján de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Bertoldi
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Verónica Noé Ibañez
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Paola Fernanda Duarte
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Carlos Federico Marfil
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Ricardo Williams Masuelli
- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Instituto de Biología Agrícola de Mendoza, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (IBAM-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, A. Brown 500 (M5528AHB) Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
|
6
|
Noble D, Hunter P. How to link genomics to physiology through epigenomics. Epigenomics 2020; 12:285-287. [DOI: 10.2217/epi-2020-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Denis Noble
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy & Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Peter Hunter
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Villarreal LP, Witzany G. That is life: communicating RNA networks from viruses and cells in continuous interaction. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019; 1447:5-20. [PMID: 30865312 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
All the conserved detailed results of evolution stored in DNA must be read, transcribed, and translated via an RNA-mediated process. This is required for the development and growth of each individual cell. Thus, all known living organisms fundamentally depend on these RNA-mediated processes. In most cases, they are interconnected with other RNAs and their associated protein complexes and function in a strictly coordinated hierarchy of temporal and spatial steps (i.e., an RNA network). Clearly, all cellular life as we know it could not function without these key agents of DNA replication, namely rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA. Thus, any definition of life that lacks RNA functions and their networks misses an essential requirement for RNA agents that inherently regulate and coordinate (communicate to) cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. The precellular evolution of RNAs occurred at the core of the emergence of cellular life and the question remained of how both precellular and cellular levels are interconnected historically and functionally. RNA networks and RNA communication can interconnect these levels. With the reemergence of virology in evolution, it became clear that communicating viruses and subviral infectious genetic parasites are bridging these two levels by invading, integrating, coadapting, exapting, and recombining constituent parts in host genomes for cellular requirements in gene regulation and coordination aims. Therefore, a 21st century understanding of life is of an inherently social process based on communicating RNA networks, in which viruses and cells continuously interact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis P Villarreal
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Was the Watchmaker Blind? Or Was She One-Eyed? BIOLOGY 2017; 6:biology6040047. [PMID: 29261138 PMCID: PMC5745452 DOI: 10.3390/biology6040047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The question whether evolution is blind is usually presented as a choice between no goals at all ('the blind watchmaker') and long-term goals which would be external to the organism, for example in the form of special creation or intelligent design. The arguments either way do not address the question whether there are short-term goals within rather than external to organisms. Organisms and their interacting populations have evolved mechanisms by which they can harness blind stochasticity and so generate rapid functional responses to environmental challenges. They can achieve this by re-organising their genomes and/or their regulatory networks. Epigenetic as well as DNA changes are involved. Evolution may have no foresight, but it is at least partially directed by organisms themselves and by the populations of which they form part. Similar arguments support partial direction in the evolution of behavior.
Collapse
|
9
|
Shapiro JA. Living Organisms Author Their Read-Write Genomes in Evolution. BIOLOGY 2017; 6:E42. [PMID: 29211049 PMCID: PMC5745447 DOI: 10.3390/biology6040042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary variations generating phenotypic adaptations and novel taxa resulted from complex cellular activities altering genome content and expression: (i) Symbiogenetic cell mergers producing the mitochondrion-bearing ancestor of eukaryotes and chloroplast-bearing ancestors of photosynthetic eukaryotes; (ii) interspecific hybridizations and genome doublings generating new species and adaptive radiations of higher plants and animals; and, (iii) interspecific horizontal DNA transfer encoding virtually all of the cellular functions between organisms and their viruses in all domains of life. Consequently, assuming that evolutionary processes occur in isolated genomes of individual species has become an unrealistic abstraction. Adaptive variations also involved natural genetic engineering of mobile DNA elements to rewire regulatory networks. In the most highly evolved organisms, biological complexity scales with "non-coding" DNA content more closely than with protein-coding capacity. Coincidentally, we have learned how so-called "non-coding" RNAs that are rich in repetitive mobile DNA sequences are key regulators of complex phenotypes. Both biotic and abiotic ecological challenges serve as triggers for episodes of elevated genome change. The intersections of cell activities, biosphere interactions, horizontal DNA transfers, and non-random Read-Write genome modifications by natural genetic engineering provide a rich molecular and biological foundation for understanding how ecological disruptions can stimulate productive, often abrupt, evolutionary transformations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James A Shapiro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago GCIS W123B, 979 E. 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Shapiro JA. The basic concept of the read-write genome: Mini-review on cell-mediated DNA modification. Biosystems 2015; 140:35-7. [PMID: 26571358 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The RW genome is a cell-modifiable DNA database encoding RNA and protein sequences. The data files are formatted by repetitive motifs for controlled replication, transmission, expression and repair. Cells have the biochemical natural genetic engineering (NGE) tools needed to make all types of changes to genome DNA. Mobile DNA elements serve as plug-in cassettes that can modify or reformat coding data. Cells regulate and target NGE activities by several well-documented molecular mechanisms. Sequence databases show NGE has operated repeatedly in evolutionary history (e.g., domain swapping in proteins, network rewiring), while experimental studies and cancer cells provide real time examples of NGE action. Experimental tests are feasible to determine whether NGE activities operate in a demonstrably adaptive manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James A Shapiro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Prindull G. Potential Gene Interactions in the Cell Cycles of Gametes, Zygotes, Embryonic Stem Cells and the Development of Cancer. Front Oncol 2015; 5:200. [PMID: 26442212 PMCID: PMC4585297 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2015.00200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This review is to explore whether potential gene interactions in the cell cycles of gametes, zygotes, and embryonic stem (ES) cells are associated with the development of cancer. METHODS MEDPILOT at the Central Library of the University of Cologne, Germany (Zentralbibliothek Köln) that covers 5,800 international medical journals and 4,300 E-journals was used to collect data. The initial searches were done in December 2012 and additional searches in October 2013-May 2015. The search terms included "cancer development," "gene interaction," and "ES cells," and the time period was between 1998 and 2015. A total of 147 articles in English language only were included in this review. RESULTS Transgenerational gene translation is implemented in the zygote through interactions of epigenetic isoforms of transcription factors (TFs) from parental gametes, predominantly during the first two zygote cleavages. Pluripotent transcription factors may provide interacting links with mutated genes during zygote-to-ES cell switches. Translation of post-transcriptional carcinogenic genes is implemented by abnormally spliced, tumor-specific isoforms of gene-encoded mRNA/non-coding RNA variants of TFs employing de novo gene synthesis and neofunctionalization. Post-translationally, mutated genes are preserved in pre-neoplastic ES cell subpopulations that can give rise to overt cancer stem cells. Thus, TFs operate as cell/disease-specific epigenetic messengers triggering clinical expression of neoplasms. CONCLUSION Potential gene interactions in the cell cycle of gametes, zygotes, and ES cells may play some roles in the development of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Prindull
- Medical Faculty, University of Göttingen , Göttingen , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Witzany G, Baluška F. Can subcellular organization be explained only by physical principles? Commun Integr Biol 2015; 8:e1009796. [PMID: 26478776 PMCID: PMC4594568 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2015.1009796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In a recent forum article, Dan Needleman and Jan Brugues argue that, despite the astonishing advances in cell biology, a fundamental understanding of even the most well-studied subcellular biological processes is lacking.1 This lack of understanding is evidenced by our inability to make precise predictions of subcellular and cellular behaviors. They suggest that to achieve such an understanding, we need to apply a combination of quantitative experiments with new theoretical concepts and determine the physical principles of subcellular biological organization.1 We discuss these issues and suggest that, besides biophysics, we need strong theoretical inputs from biocommunication theory in order to understand all the core agents of the cellular life and subcellular organization.
Collapse
|
13
|
Wu A, Wu K, Li M, Bao L, Shen X, Li S, Li J, Yang Z. Upregulation of microRNA-492 induced by epigenetic drug treatment inhibits the malignant phenotype of clear cell renal cell carcinoma in vitro. Mol Med Rep 2015; 12:1413-20. [PMID: 25815441 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.3550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the most common type of cancer of the renal parenchyma. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs of ~22 nucleotides in length, which function as post‑transcriptional regulators. Recently, the downregulation of miRNA (miR)-492 was observed to be associated with ccRCC; however, the molecular mechanism by which miR492 inhibited ccRCC remained to be elucidated. In the present study, it was demonstrated that miR-492 was markedly downregulated in ccRCC tissues when compared with adjacent normal tissues, as determined by reverse transcription-quantitative poymerase chain reaction (PCR). This downregulation was predominantly due to the hypermethylation of the CpG island of the miR-492 promoter, which was detected by methylation specific PCR and bisulfite genomic sequencing PCR, and was shown to inhibit miR-492 transcription. Through the use of a DNA demethylation agent, 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine or the histone deacetylase inhibitor 4-phenylbutyric acid, the expression level of miR-492 was significantly upregulated in ccRCC cells, which further inhibited cell proliferation and invasion, while promoting cell apoptosis and adhesion. In conclusion, the present study provided novel insights into the potential mechanisms involved in ccRCC and it is hypothesized that miR-492 may become a promising therapeutic agent in the treatment of ccRCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aibing Wu
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Kunpeng Wu
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Mingchun Li
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Lingli Bao
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Xiang Shen
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Shunjun Li
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Jinmei Li
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| | - Zhixiong Yang
- Oncology Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524001, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Manfred Eigen extended Erwin Schroedinger's concept of "life is physics and chemistry" through the introduction of information theory and cybernetic systems theory into "life is physics and chemistry and information." Based on this assumption, Eigen developed the concepts of quasispecies and hypercycles, which have been dominant in molecular biology and virology ever since. He insisted that the genetic code is not just used metaphorically: it represents a real natural language. However, the basics of scientific knowledge changed dramatically within the second half of the 20th century. Unfortunately, Eigen ignored the results of the philosophy of science discourse on essential features of natural languages and codes: a natural language or code emerges from populations of living agents that communicate. This contribution will look at some of the highlights of this historical development and the results relevant for biological theories about life.
Collapse
|