1
|
The role of mixed lineage kinase 3 (MLK3) in cancers. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 238:108269. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
|
2
|
Comparative Investigation of Gene Regulatory Processes Underlying Avian Influenza Viruses in Chicken and Duck. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11020219. [PMID: 35205087 PMCID: PMC8868632 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Avian influenza poses a great risk to gallinaceous poultry, while mallard ducks can withstand most virus strains. To date, the mechanisms underlying the susceptibility of chicken and the effective immune response of duck have not been completely understood. In this study, our aim is to investigate the transcriptional gene regulation governing the expression of important avian-influenza-induced genes and to reveal the master regulators stimulating an effective immune response after virus infection in ducks while dysfunctioning in chicken. Abstract The avian influenza virus (AIV) mainly affects birds and not only causes animals’ deaths, but also poses a great risk of zoonotically infecting humans. While ducks and wild waterfowl are seen as a natural reservoir for AIVs and can withstand most virus strains, chicken mostly succumb to infection with high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). To date, the mechanisms underlying the susceptibility of chicken and the effective immune response of duck have not been completely unraveled. In this study, we investigate the transcriptional gene regulation underlying disease progression in chicken and duck after AIV infection. For this purpose, we use a publicly available RNA-sequencing dataset from chicken and ducks infected with low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H5N2 and HPAI H5N1 (lung and ileum tissues, 1 and 3 days post-infection). Unlike previous studies, we performed a promoter analysis based on orthologous genes to detect important transcription factors (TFs) and their cooperation, based on which we apply a systems biology approach to identify common and species-specific master regulators. We found master regulators such as EGR1, FOS, and SP1, specifically for chicken and ETS1 and SMAD3/4, specifically for duck, which could be responsible for the duck’s effective and the chicken’s ineffective immune response.
Collapse
|
3
|
Menck K, Heinrichs S, Wlochowitz D, Sitte M, Noeding H, Janshoff A, Treiber H, Ruhwedel T, Schatlo B, von der Brelie C, Wiemann S, Pukrop T, Beißbarth T, Binder C, Bleckmann A. WNT11/ROR2 signaling is associated with tumor invasion and poor survival in breast cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2021; 40:395. [PMID: 34911552 PMCID: PMC8672621 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-021-02187-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Breast cancer has been associated with activation of the WNT signaling pathway, although no driver mutations in WNT genes have been found yet. Instead, a high expression of the alternative WNT receptor ROR2 was observed, in particular in breast cancer brain metastases. However, its respective ligand and downstream signaling in this context remained unknown. METHODS We modulated the expression of ROR2 in human breast cancer cells and characterized their gene and protein expression by RNA-Seq, qRT-PCR, immunoblots and reverse phase protein array (RPPA) combined with network analyses to understand the molecular basis of ROR2 signaling in breast cancer. Using co-immunoprecipitations, we verified the interaction of ROR2 with the identified ligand, WNT11. The functional consequences of WNT11/ROR2 signaling for tumor cell aggressiveness were assessed by microscopy, impedance sensing as well as viability and invasion assays. To evaluate the translational significance of our findings, we performed gene set enrichment, expression and survival analyses on human breast cancer brain metastases. RESULTS We found ROR2 to be highly expressed in aggressive breast tumors and associated with worse metastasis-free survival. ROR2 overexpression induced a BRCAness-like phenotype in a cell-context specific manner and rendered cells resistant to PARP inhibition. High levels of ROR2 were furthermore associated with defects in cell morphology and cell-cell-contacts leading to increased tumor invasiveness. On a molecular level, ROR2 overexpression upregulated several non-canonical WNT ligands, in particular WNT11. Co-immunoprecipitation confirmed that WNT11 indeed interacts with the cysteine-rich domain of ROR2 and triggers its invasion-promoting signaling via RHO/ROCK. Knockdown of WNT11 reversed the pro-invasive phenotype and the cellular changes in ROR2-overexpressing cells. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our study revealed a novel auto-stimulatory loop in which ROR2 triggers the expression of its own ligand, WNT11, resulting in enhanced tumor invasion associated with breast cancer metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Menck
- Department of Medicine A, Hematology, Oncology, and Pneumology, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- West German Cancer Center, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Saskia Heinrichs
- Department of Medicine A, Hematology, Oncology, and Pneumology, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- West German Cancer Center, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Darius Wlochowitz
- Department of Medical Bioinformatics, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Maren Sitte
- Department of Medical Bioinformatics, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Helen Noeding
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Georg August University Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Janshoff
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Georg August University Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hannes Treiber
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Torben Ruhwedel
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bawarjan Schatlo
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Wiemann
- Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, German Cancer Research Center, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tobias Pukrop
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Hematology and Medical Oncology, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Tim Beißbarth
- Department of Medical Bioinformatics, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Binder
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annalen Bleckmann
- Department of Medicine A, Hematology, Oncology, and Pneumology, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany.
- West German Cancer Center, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany.
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37099, Göttingen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rajavel A, Schmitt AO, Gültas M. Computational Identification of Master Regulators Influencing Trypanotolerance in Cattle. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020562. [PMID: 33429951 PMCID: PMC7827104 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is transmitted by the tsetse fly which carries pathogenic trypanosomes in its saliva, thus causing debilitating infection to livestock health. As the disease advances, a multistage progression process is observed based on the progressive clinical signs displayed in the host’s body. Investigation of genes expressed with regular monotonic patterns (known as Monotonically Expressed Genes (MEGs)) and of their master regulators can provide important clue for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the AAT disease. For this purpose, we analysed MEGs for three tissues (liver, spleen and lymph node) of two cattle breeds, namely trypanosusceptible Boran and trypanotolerant N’Dama. Our analysis revealed cattle breed-specific master regulators which are highly related to distinguish the genetic programs in both cattle breeds. Especially the master regulators MYC and DBP found in this study, seem to influence the immune responses strongly, thereby susceptibility and trypanotolerance of Boran and N’Dama respectively. Furthermore, our pathway analysis also bolsters the crucial roles of these master regulators. Taken together, our findings provide novel insights into breed-specific master regulators which orchestrate the regulatory cascades influencing the level of trypanotolerance in cattle breeds and thus could be promising drug targets for future therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abirami Rajavel
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (A.R.); (A.O.S.)
| | - Armin Otto Schmitt
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (A.R.); (A.O.S.)
- Center for Integrated Breeding Research (CiBreed), Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, Georg-August University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Mehmet Gültas
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (A.R.); (A.O.S.)
- Center for Integrated Breeding Research (CiBreed), Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, Georg-August University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Identifying Cattle Breed-Specific Partner Choice of Transcription Factors during the African Trypanosomiasis Disease Progression Using Bioinformatics Analysis. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8020246. [PMID: 32456126 PMCID: PMC7350023 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a disease caused by pathogenic trypanosomes which affects millions of livestock every year causing huge economic losses in agricultural production especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The disease is spread by the tsetse fly which carries the parasite in its saliva. During the disease progression, the cattle are prominently subjected to anaemia, weight loss, intermittent fever, chills, neuronal degeneration, congestive heart failure, and finally death. According to their different genetic programs governing the level of tolerance to AAT, cattle breeds are classified as either resistant or susceptible. In this study, we focus on the cattle breeds N’Dama and Boran which are known to be resistant and susceptible to trypanosomiasis, respectively. Despite the rich literature on both breeds, the gene regulatory mechanisms of the underlying biological processes for their resistance and susceptibility have not been extensively studied. To address the limited knowledge about the tissue-specific transcription factor (TF) cooperations associated with trypanosomiasis, we investigated gene expression data from these cattle breeds computationally. Consequently, we identified significant cooperative TF pairs (especially DBP−PPARA and DBP−THAP1 in N’Dama and DBP−PAX8 in Boran liver tissue) which could help understand the underlying AAT tolerance/susceptibility mechanism in both cattle breeds.
Collapse
|
6
|
Ramzan F, Klees S, Schmitt AO, Cavero D, Gültas M. Identification of Age-Specific and Common Key Regulatory Mechanisms Governing Eggshell Strength in Chicken Using Random Forests. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11040464. [PMID: 32344666 PMCID: PMC7230204 DOI: 10.3390/genes11040464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In today's chicken egg industry, maintaining the strength of eggshells in longer laying cycles is pivotal for improving the persistency of egg laying. Eggshell development and mineralization underlie a complex regulatory interplay of various proteins and signaling cascades involving multiple organ systems. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms influencing this dynamic trait over time is imperative, yet scarce. To investigate the temporal changes in the signaling cascades, we considered eggshell strength at two different time points during the egg production cycle and studied the genotype-phenotype associations by employing the Random Forests algorithm on chicken genotypic data. For the analysis of corresponding genes, we adopted a well established systems biology approach to delineate gene regulatory pathways and master regulators underlying this important trait. Our results indicate that, while some of the master regulators (Slc22a1 and Sox11) and pathways are common at different laying stages of chicken, others (e.g., Scn11a, St8sia2, or the TGF- β pathway) represent age-specific functions. Overall, our results provide: (i) significant insights into age-specific and common molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of eggshell strength; and (ii) new breeding targets to improve the eggshell quality during the later stages of the chicken production cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Ramzan
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (F.R.); (S.K.); (A.O.S.)
- Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, 38000 Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Selina Klees
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (F.R.); (S.K.); (A.O.S.)
| | - Armin Otto Schmitt
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (F.R.); (S.K.); (A.O.S.)
- Center for Integrated Breeding Research (CiBreed), Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, Georg-August University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Mehmet Gültas
- Breeding Informatics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Margarethe von Wrangell-Weg 7, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; (F.R.); (S.K.); (A.O.S.)
- Center for Integrated Breeding Research (CiBreed), Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, Georg-August University, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Blazquez R, Wlochowitz D, Wolff A, Seitz S, Wachter A, Perera-Bel J, Bleckmann A, Beißbarth T, Salinas G, Riemenschneider MJ, Proescholdt M, Evert M, Utpatel K, Siam L, Schatlo B, Balkenhol M, Stadelmann C, Schildhaus HU, Korf U, Reinz E, Wiemann S, Vollmer E, Schulz M, Ritter U, Hanisch UK, Pukrop T. PI3K: A master regulator of brain metastasis-promoting macrophages/microglia. Glia 2018; 66:2438-2455. [PMID: 30357946 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mutations and activation of the PI3K signaling pathway in breast cancer cells have been linked to brain metastases. However, here we describe that in some breast cancer brain metastases samples the protein expression of PI3K signaling components is restricted to the metastatic microenvironment. In contrast to the therapeutic effects of PI3K inhibition on the breast cancer cells, the reaction of the brain microenvironment is less understood. Therefore we aimed to quantify the PI3K pathway activity in breast cancer brain metastasis and investigate the effects of PI3K inhibition on the central nervous system (CNS) microenvironment. First, to systematically quantify the PI3K pathway activity in breast cancer brain metastases, we performed a prospective biomarker study using a reverse phase protein array (RPPA). The majority, namely 30 out of 48 (62.5%) brain metastatic tissues examined, revealed high PI3K signaling activity that was associated with a median overall survival (OS) of 9.41 months, while that of patients, whose brain metastases showed only moderate or low PI3K activity, amounted to only 1.93 and 6.71 months, respectively. Second, we identified PI3K as a master regulator of metastasis-promoting macrophages/microglia during CNS colonization; and treatment with buparlisib (BKM120), a pan-PI3K Class I inhibitor with a good blood-brain-barrier penetrance, reduced their metastasis-promoting features. In conclusion, PI3K signaling is active in the majority of breast cancer brain metastases. Since PI3K inhibition does not only affect the metastatic cells but also re-educates the metastasis-promoting macrophages/microglia, PI3K inhibition may hold considerable promise in the treatment of brain metastasis and the respective microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Blazquez
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Darius Wlochowitz
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Wolff
- Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Seitz
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Astrid Wachter
- Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Julia Perera-Bel
- Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annalen Bleckmann
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tim Beißbarth
- Department of Medical Statistics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gabriela Salinas
- Department of Developmental Biochemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Martin Proescholdt
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Evert
- Institute of Pathology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Kirsten Utpatel
- Institute of Pathology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Laila Siam
- Institute of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bawarjan Schatlo
- Institute of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marko Balkenhol
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christine Stadelmann
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Ulrike Korf
- Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eileen Reinz
- Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Wiemann
- Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Elena Vollmer
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Schulz
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Uwe Ritter
- Regensburg Center for Interventional Immunology (RCI), Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Regensburg and University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Uwe K Hanisch
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tobias Pukrop
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Schroyer AL, Stimes NW, Abi Saab WF, Chadee DN. MLK3 phosphorylation by ERK1/2 is required for oxidative stress-induced invasion of colorectal cancer cells. Oncogene 2018; 37:1031-1040. [PMID: 29084209 PMCID: PMC5823719 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mixed lineage kinase 3 (MLK3) functions in migration and/or invasion of several human cancers; however, the role of MLK3 in colorectal cancer (CRC) invasion is unknown. MLK3 is a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase kinase (MAP3K) which activates MAPK pathways through either kinase-dependent or -independent mechanisms. Human colorectal tumors display increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or oxidative stress. ROS, such as H2O2, are important for carcinogenesis and activate MAPK signaling pathways. In human colorectal carcinoma (HCT116) cells treated with H2O2, extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) were activated and MLK3 exhibited reduced electrophoretic mobility (shift) in sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), which was eliminated by phosphatase treatment. Pretreatment with the ROS scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine, the ERK1/2 inhibitor UO126, or ERK1/2 siRNA knockdown blocked the H2O2-induced shift of MLK3, while MLK3 inhibition with Cep1347 did not. In co-immunoprecipitation experiments performed on H2O2-treated HCT116 cells, endogenous MLK3 associated with endogenous ERK1/2 and B-Raf. Active ERK1 phosphorylated kinase dead FLAG-MLK3 in vitro, whereas ERK1 phosphorylation of kinase dead FLAG-MLK3-S705A-S758A was reduced. Both MLK3 siRNA knockdown and FLAG-MLK3-S705A-S758A expression decreased ERK1/2 activation in H2O2-treated cells. Prolonged H2O2 treatment activated ERK1/2 and promoted invasion of colon cancer cells, which was attenuated by MLK3 siRNA knockdown. Furthermore, S705A-S758A-FLAG-MLK3 demonstrated decreased oxidative-stress induced colon cancer cell invasion, but increased interaction with GST-B-Raf as compared with wild-type-FLAG-MLK3 in H2O2-treated cells. These results suggest oxidative stress stimulates an ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation of MLK3 on Ser705 and Ser758, which promotes MLK3-dependent B-Raf and ERK1/2 activation; this positive feedback loop enhances the invasion of colon cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- April L. Schroyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft Street, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA
| | - Nicholas W. Stimes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft Street, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA
| | - Widian F. Abi Saab
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft Street, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA
| | - Deborah N. Chadee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft Street, Toledo, Ohio 43606, USA
| |
Collapse
|