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de Taeye SW, Schriek AI, Umotoy JC, Grobben M, Burger JA, Sanders RW, Vidarsson G, Wuhrer M, Falck D, Kootstra NA, van Gils MJ. Afucosylated broadly neutralizing antibodies enhance clearance of HIV-1 infected cells through cell-mediated killing. Commun Biol 2024; 7:964. [PMID: 39122901 PMCID: PMC11316088 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06659-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) targeting the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) have the capacity to delay viral rebound when administered to people with HIV-1 (PWH) during anti-retroviral therapy (ART) interruption. To further enhance the performance of bNAbs through their Fc effector functions, in particular NK cell-mediated killing of HIV-1 infected cells, we have produced a panel of glyco-engineered (afucosylated) bNAbs with enhanced affinity for Fc gamma receptor IIIa. These afucosylated anti-HIV-1 bNAbs enhance NK cell activation and degranulation compared to fucosylated counterparts even at low antigen density. NK cells from PWH expressing exhaustion markers PD-1 and TIGIT are activated in a similar fashion by afucosylated bNAbs as NK cell from HIV-1 negative individuals. Killing of HIV-1 infected cells is most effective with afucosylated bNAbs 2G12, N6, PGT151 and PGDM1400, whereas afucosylated PGT121 and non-neutralizing antibody A32 only induce minor NK cell-mediated killing. These data indicate that the approach angle and affinity of Abs influence the capacity to induce antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Thus, afucosylated bNAbs have the capacity to induce NK cell-mediated killing of infected cells, which warrants further investigation of afucosylated bNAb administration in vivo, aiming for reduction of the viral reservoir and ART free durable control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W de Taeye
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Angela I Schriek
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey C Umotoy
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marloes Grobben
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Judith A Burger
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rogier W Sanders
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Gestur Vidarsson
- Sanquin Research and Landsteiner, Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Immunoglobulin Research Laboratory, Department of Experimental Immunohematology, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Manfred Wuhrer
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - David Falck
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Neeltje A Kootstra
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Experimental Immunology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marit J van Gils
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology and Infectious diseases, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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2
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Prokopovich AK, Litvinova IS, Zubkova AE, Yudkin DV. CXCR4 Is a Potential Target for Anti-HIV Gene Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1187. [PMID: 38256260 PMCID: PMC10816112 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic is a global issue. The estimated number of people with HIV is 39,000,000 to date. Antiviral therapy is the primary approach to treat the infection. However, it does not allow for a complete elimination of the pathogen. The advances in modern gene therapy methods open up new possibilities of effective therapy. One of these areas of possibility is the development of technologies to prevent virus penetration into the cell. Currently, a number of technologies aimed at either the prevention of virus binding to the CCR5 coreceptor or its knockout are undergoing various stages of clinical trials. Since HIV can also utilize the CXCR4 coreceptor, technologies to modify this receptor are also required. Standard knockout of CXCR4 is impossible due to its physiological significance. This review presents an analysis of interactions between individual amino acids in CXCR4 and physiological ligands and HIV gp120. It also discusses potential targets for gene therapy approaches aimed at modifying the coreceptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Appolinaria K. Prokopovich
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-Being (FBRI SRC VB “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor), 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (A.K.P.); (I.S.L.); (A.E.Z.)
| | - Irina S. Litvinova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-Being (FBRI SRC VB “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor), 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (A.K.P.); (I.S.L.); (A.E.Z.)
| | - Alexandra E. Zubkova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-Being (FBRI SRC VB “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor), 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (A.K.P.); (I.S.L.); (A.E.Z.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova 2, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Dmitry V. Yudkin
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Well-Being (FBRI SRC VB “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor), 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (A.K.P.); (I.S.L.); (A.E.Z.)
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3
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Radić L, Sliepen K, Yin V, Brinkkemper M, Capella-Pujol J, Schriek AI, Torres JL, Bangaru S, Burger JA, Poniman M, Bontjer I, Bouhuijs JH, Gideonse D, Eggink D, Ward AB, Heck AJ, Van Gils MJ, Sanders RW, Schinkel J. Bispecific antibodies combine breadth, potency, and avidity of parental antibodies to neutralize sarbecoviruses. iScience 2023; 26:106540. [PMID: 37063468 PMCID: PMC10065043 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 variants evade current monoclonal antibody therapies. Bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) combine the specificities of two distinct antibodies taking advantage of the avidity and synergy provided by targeting different epitopes. Here we used controlled Fab-arm exchange to produce bsAbs that neutralize SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Omicron and its subvariants, by combining potent SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibodies with broader antibodies that also neutralize SARS-CoV. We demonstrated that the parental antibodies rely on avidity for neutralization using bsAbs containing one irrelevant Fab arm. Using mass photometry to measure the formation of antibody:spike complexes, we determined that bsAbs increase binding stoichiometry compared to corresponding cocktails, without a loss of binding affinity. The heterogeneous binding pattern of bsAbs to spike, observed by negative-stain electron microscopy and mass photometry provided evidence for both intra- and inter-spike crosslinking. This study highlights the utility of cross-neutralizing antibodies for designing bivalent agents to combat circulating and future SARS-like coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Radić
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kwinten Sliepen
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Victor Yin
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mitch Brinkkemper
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joan Capella-Pujol
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Angela I. Schriek
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jonathan L. Torres
- Department of Structural Biology and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Sandhya Bangaru
- Department of Structural Biology and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Judith A. Burger
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Meliawati Poniman
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ilja Bontjer
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joey H. Bouhuijs
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - David Gideonse
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, WHO COVID-19 reference laboratory, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Dirk Eggink
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, WHO COVID-19 reference laboratory, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Andrew B. Ward
- Department of Structural Biology and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Albert J.R. Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marit J. Van Gils
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rogier W. Sanders
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Janke Schinkel
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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4
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Hu Z, Feng J, Deng J, Zhang Y, He X, Hu J, Wang X, Hu S, Liu X, Liu X. Delivery of Fc-fusion Protein by a Recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus Vector. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2023; 195:2077-2092. [PMID: 36417109 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-022-04237-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fc-fusion proteins (FCPs), a new generation biological medicine, have revolutionized the practice of medicines that treat diseases. However, complex manufacturing techniques are required for FCP production, casting the affordability and accessibility issues in low- and middle-income economies (LMIEs). Virus-vectored system may serve as a simple and cost-effective platform for FCP delivery. As a proof-of-concept study, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), a widely-used vector for vaccine generation, was used as a vector to express and deliver a model FCP composed of the hemagglutinin (HA) and IgG Fc. A recombinant NDV expressing the HA-Fc fusion protein was generated using reverse genetics, which had comparable replication and virulence to the parental virus. High levels of expression of soluble HA-Fc were detected in cell culture and embryonated chicken eggs inoculated with the recombinant NDV. In addition, the recombinant NDV replicated in the lung of mouse, delivering the HA-Fc protein to this organ. The HA-Fc expressed by NDV specifically bound to murine FcγRI, which was dependent on the presence of the Fc tag. The recombinant NDV induced high vector-specific antibody response, whereas it failed to elicit H7N9-specific antibody immunity in mice. The absence of HA-specific antibodies may be attributed to deficient incorporation of the HA-Fc protein into NDV virion particles. Our results indicated that NDV may be potentially used as a vector for FCP expression and delivery. This strategy may help to enhance the affordability and equal accessibility of FCP biological medicines, especially in LIMEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenglei Hu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jianing Feng
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jing Deng
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yanyan Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaozheng He
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jiao Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoquan Wang
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Shunlin Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowen Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China. .,Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.
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5
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Brouwer PJM, Antanasijevic A, Ronk AJ, Müller-Kräuter H, Watanabe Y, Claireaux M, Perrett HR, Bijl TPL, Grobben M, Umotoy JC, Schriek AI, Burger JA, Tejjani K, Lloyd NM, Steijaert TH, van Haaren MM, Sliepen K, de Taeye SW, van Gils MJ, Crispin M, Strecker T, Bukreyev A, Ward AB, Sanders RW. Lassa virus glycoprotein nanoparticles elicit neutralizing antibody responses and protection. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:1759-1772.e12. [PMID: 36400021 PMCID: PMC9794196 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The Lassa virus is endemic in parts of West Africa, and it causes hemorrhagic fever with high mortality. The development of a recombinant protein vaccine has been hampered by the instability of soluble Lassa virus glycoprotein complex (GPC) trimers, which disassemble into monomeric subunits after expression. Here, we use two-component protein nanoparticles consisting of trimeric and pentameric subunits to stabilize GPC in a trimeric conformation. These GPC nanoparticles present twenty prefusion GPC trimers on the surface of an icosahedral particle. Cryo-EM studies of GPC nanoparticles demonstrated a well-ordered structure and yielded a high-resolution structure of an unliganded GPC. These nanoparticles induced potent humoral immune responses in rabbits and protective immunity against the lethal Lassa virus challenge in guinea pigs. Additionally, we isolated a neutralizing antibody that mapped to the putative receptor-binding site, revealing a previously undefined site of vulnerability. Collectively, these findings offer potential approaches to vaccine and therapeutic design for the Lassa virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J M Brouwer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Integrative, Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Aleksandar Antanasijevic
- Department of Integrative, Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Neutralizing Antibody Center, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Adam J Ronk
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA; Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | | | - Yasunori Watanabe
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Mathieu Claireaux
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hailee R Perrett
- Department of Integrative, Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Tom P L Bijl
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marloes Grobben
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey C Umotoy
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Angela I Schriek
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Judith A Burger
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Khadija Tejjani
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nicole M Lloyd
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA; Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Thijs H Steijaert
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marlies M van Haaren
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kwinten Sliepen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Steven W de Taeye
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marit J van Gils
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Max Crispin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Thomas Strecker
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Bukreyev
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA; Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77550, USA
| | - Andrew B Ward
- Department of Integrative, Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Neutralizing Antibody Center, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Rogier W Sanders
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Infection & Immunity Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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