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Narasimha VL, Mukherjee D, Arya S, Parmar A. Alcohol use disorder research in India: An update. Indian J Psychiatry 2024; 66:495-515. [PMID: 39100372 PMCID: PMC11293778 DOI: 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_758_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Despite alcohol use being a risk factor for numerous health-related conditions and alcohol use disorder (AUD) recognized as a disease, there was limited research in India until 2010. This narrative review aims to evaluate AUD-related research in India from 2010 to July 2023. Methods A PubMed search used key terms for AUD in India after 2010. Indian and international journals with regional significance that publish alcohol-related research were searched by each author individually. These were then collated, and duplicates were removed. In addition, we also conducted a gray literature search on focused areas related to AUD. Results The alcohol-related research in India after 2010 focused on diverse areas associated with alcohol use. Some areas of research have received more attention than others. Two major epidemiological surveys conducted in the past decade reveal that around 5% have a problematic alcohol use pattern. Factors associated with alcohol use, like genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and sociocultural, were studied. The studies focused on the clinical profile of AUD, including their correlates, such as craving, withdrawal, alcohol-related harm, and comorbid psychiatric and medical illnesses. During this period, minimal research was conducted to understand AUD's laboratory biomarkers, course, and prognosis. While there was a focus on generating evidence for different psychological interventions for alcohol dependence in management-related research, pharmacological studies centered on anticraving agents like baclofen. Research on noninvasive brain stimulation, such as rTMS, has shown preliminary usefulness in treating alcohol dependence. Very little research has been conducted regarding alcohol policy. Conclusion In the past decade, Indian research on alcohol has focused on diverse areas. Epidemiological and psychological management-related research received maximum attention. Considering the magnitude of the alcohol-related burden, it is essential to prioritize research to other less studied areas like pharmacological management of alcohol dependence and alcohol policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkata Lakshmi Narasimha
- Centre for Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | | | - Sidharth Arya
- Institute of Mental Health, Pt BDS University of Health Sciences, Rohtak, Haryana, India
| | - Arpit Parmar
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
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Melamud MM, Bobrik DV, Brit PI, Efremov IS, Buneva VN, Nevinsky GA, Akhmetova EA, Asadullin AR, Ermakov EA. Biochemical, Hematological, Inflammatory, and Gut Permeability Biomarkers in Patients with Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome with and without Delirium Tremens. J Clin Med 2024; 13:2776. [PMID: 38792318 PMCID: PMC11121978 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13102776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Delirium Tremens (DT) is known to be a serious complication of alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS). Neurotransmitter abnormalities, inflammation, and increased permeability are associated with the pathogenesis of AWS and DT. However, the biomarkers of these conditions are still poorly understood. Methods: In this work, biochemical, hematologic, inflammatory, and gut permeability biomarkers were investigated in the following three groups: healthy controls (n = 75), severe AWS patients with DT (n = 28), and mild/moderate AWS without DT (n = 97). Blood sampling was performed after resolution of the acute condition (on 5 ± 1 day after admission) to collect clinical information from patients and to investigate associations with clinical scales. Biomarker analysis was performed using automated analyzers and ELISA. Inflammatory biomarkers included the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR). Results: Among the biochemical biomarkers, only glucose, total cholesterol, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) changed significantly in the analyzed groups. A multiple regression analysis showed that age and ALT were independent predictors of the CIWA-Ar score. Hematologic biomarker analysis showed an increased white blood cell count, and the elevated size and greater size variability of red blood cells and platelets (MCV, RDWc, and PDWc) in two groups of patients. Gut permeability biomarkers (FABP2, LBP, and zonulin) did not change, but were associated with comorbid pathologies (alcohol liver disease and pancreatitis). The increase in inflammatory biomarkers (ESR and PLR) was more evident in AWS patients with DT. Cluster analysis confirmed the existence of a subgroup of patients with evidence of high inflammation, and such a subgroup was more frequent in DT patients. Conclusions: These findings contribute to the understanding of biomarker variability in AWS patients with and without DT and support the heterogeneity of patients by the level of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark M. Melamud
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (M.M.M.); (V.N.B.); (G.A.N.)
| | - Daria V. Bobrik
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia; (D.V.B.); (E.A.A.); (A.R.A.)
| | - Polina I. Brit
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Ilia S. Efremov
- Institute of Personalized Psychiatry and Neurology, Shared Core Facilities, V.M. Bekhterev National Medical Research Centre for Psychiatry and Neurology, 192019 Saint Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Valentina N. Buneva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (M.M.M.); (V.N.B.); (G.A.N.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Georgy A. Nevinsky
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (M.M.M.); (V.N.B.); (G.A.N.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Elvina A. Akhmetova
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia; (D.V.B.); (E.A.A.); (A.R.A.)
- Institute of Personalized Psychiatry and Neurology, Shared Core Facilities, V.M. Bekhterev National Medical Research Centre for Psychiatry and Neurology, 192019 Saint Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Azat R. Asadullin
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia; (D.V.B.); (E.A.A.); (A.R.A.)
- Institute of Personalized Psychiatry and Neurology, Shared Core Facilities, V.M. Bekhterev National Medical Research Centre for Psychiatry and Neurology, 192019 Saint Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Evgeny A. Ermakov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (M.M.M.); (V.N.B.); (G.A.N.)
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
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Rodrigues SG, van der Merwe S, Krag A, Wiest R. Gut-liver axis: Pathophysiological concepts and medical perspective in chronic liver diseases. Semin Immunol 2024; 71:101859. [PMID: 38219459 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2023.101859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Susana G Rodrigues
- Department of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Schalk van der Merwe
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University hospital Gasthuisberg, University of Leuven, Belgium
| | - Aleksander Krag
- Institute of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark; Centre for Liver Research, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Reiner Wiest
- Department of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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Qiu B, Zhong Z, Dou L, Xu Y, Zou Y, Weldon K, Wang J, Zhang L, Liu M, Williams KE, Spence JP, Bell RL, Lai Z, Yong W, Liang T. Knocking out Fkbp51 decreases CCl 4-induced liver injury through enhancement of mitochondrial function and Parkin activity. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:1. [PMID: 38167156 PMCID: PMC10763032 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-023-01184-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Previously, we found that FK506 binding protein 51 (Fkbp51) knockout (KO) mice resist high fat diet-induced fatty liver and alcohol-induced liver injury. The aim of this research is to identify the mechanism of Fkbp51 in liver injury. METHODS Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver injury was compared between Fkbp51 KO and wild type (WT) mice. Step-wise and in-depth analyses were applied, including liver histology, biochemistry, RNA-Seq, mitochondrial respiration, electron microscopy, and molecular assessments. The selective FKBP51 inhibitor (SAFit2) was tested as a potential treatment to ameliorate liver injury. RESULTS Fkbp51 knockout mice exhibited protection against liver injury, as evidenced by liver histology, reduced fibrosis-associated markers and lower serum liver enzyme levels. RNA-seq identified differentially expressed genes and involved pathways, such as fibrogenesis, inflammation, mitochondria, and oxidative metabolism pathways and predicted the interaction of FKBP51, Parkin, and HSP90. Cellular studies supported co-localization of Parkin and FKBP51 in the mitochondrial network, and Parkin was shown to be expressed higher in the liver of KO mice at baseline and after liver injury relative to WT. Further functional analysis identified that KO mice exhibited increased ATP production and enhanced mitochondrial respiration. KO mice have increased mitochondrial size, increased autophagy/mitophagy and mitochondrial-derived vesicles (MDV), and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which supports enhancement of mitochondrial quality control (MQC). Application of SAFit2, an FKBP51 inhibitor, reduced the effects of CCl4-induced liver injury and was associated with increased Parkin, pAKT, and ATP production. CONCLUSIONS Downregulation of FKBP51 represents a promising therapeutic target for liver disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Qiu
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CI, 06520, USA
| | - Zhaohui Zhong
- General Surgery Department, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, 100032, China
| | - Longyu Dou
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yuxue Xu
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yi Zou
- Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, UT Health, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Korri Weldon
- Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, UT Health, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Jun Wang
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Lingling Zhang
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Ming Liu
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Kent E Williams
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, 46202, USA
| | - John Paul Spence
- Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, 46202, USA
| | - Richard L Bell
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, 46202, USA
| | - Zhao Lai
- Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, UT Health, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Weidong Yong
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, 46202, USA.
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
| | - Tiebing Liang
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University, School of Medicine, Indianapolis, 46202, USA.
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Oboh-Imafidon MA, Torbit SM, Jacob S, Schroeter MN, Tucker AR, Ojurongbe O, Thomas BN. Severity of Schistosoma haematobium co-infection with malaria in school-children is potentially modulated by host CD14 gene variants. BMC Res Notes 2023; 16:199. [PMID: 37684680 PMCID: PMC10486024 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-023-06479-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Schistosomiasis remains a chronic disease of global importance, especially in many rural areas of the world where co-infection with Plasmodium falciparum is common. It is critical to decipher the role of single or co-infected disease scenarios on immune system regulation in such individuals and how such co-infections can either ameliorate or complicate immune response and the consequent disease outcome. First, 10 ml of urine samples, collected between 10:00 am and 2:00 pm, was filtered for diagnosis of schistosomiasis, while egg count, indicative of disease severity, was determined by microscopy. Furthermore, genomic DNA samples extracted from dried blood spots collected on filter paper from one hundred and forty-four Schistosoma haematobium-infected school-children was tested for P. falciparum parasite positivity by an allele-specific nested-PCR analysis of merozoite surface protein (msp)-1 and -2 genes and a real-time PCR assay. In addition, among P. falciparum parasite-positive individuals, we carried out a Taqman SNP genotyping assay to extrapolate the effect of host CD14 (-159 C/T; rs2569190) genetic variants on schistosome egg count. RESULTS Of the 144 individuals recruited, P. falciparum parasite positivity with msp-1 gene were 34%, 43% and 55% for MAD20, RO33 and K1 alleles respectively. Of the co-infected individuals, CD14 genetic variants ranged from 18.8% vs 21.5%, 33.3% vs 44.4%, 9.7% vs 11.8% for single versus schistosome co-infection for the wild type (CC), heterozygous (CT) and mutant (TT) variants respectively. Though the mean egg count for co-infected individuals with CD14 wild type (33.7 eggs per 10 ml of urine) and heterozygote variants (37.5 eggs per 10 ml of urine) were lower than that of schistosome infection alone (52.48 and 48.08 eggs/10 ml of urine respectively), it lacked statistical significance (p-value 0.12 and 0.29), possibly reflecting the benefit of the CD14 activation in schistosome plus malaria co-infection and not schistosome infection alone. In addition, the lower mean egg count in co-infected individuals reveal the benefit of downstream Th1 immune response mitigated by CD14 innate activation that is absent in schistosome infection alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary A Oboh-Imafidon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Sabrina M Torbit
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Swathi Jacob
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Marissa N Schroeter
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Ashley R Tucker
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Olusola Ojurongbe
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomosho, Nigeria
- Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Humboldt-Bayer Foundation Research Hub, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomosho, Nigeria
| | - Bolaji N Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, 153 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA.
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Staufer K, Stauber RE. Steatotic Liver Disease: Metabolic Dysfunction, Alcohol, or Both? Biomedicines 2023; 11:2108. [PMID: 37626604 PMCID: PMC10452742 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11082108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), both of them accounting for fatty liver disease (FLD), are among the most common chronic liver diseases globally, contributing to substantial public health burden. Both NAFLD and ALD share a similar picture of clinical presentation yet may have differences in prognosis and treatment, which renders early and accurate diagnosis difficult but necessary. While NAFLD is the fastest increasing chronic liver disease, the prevalence of ALD has seemingly remained stable in recent years. Lately, the term steatotic liver disease (SLD) has been introduced, replacing FLD to reduce stigma. SLD represents an overarching term to primarily comprise metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), formerly known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), as well as alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), and MetALD, defined as a continuum across which the contribution of MASLD and ALD varies. The present review discusses current knowledge on common denominators of NAFLD/MASLD and ALD in order to highlight clinical and research needs to improve our understanding of SLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Staufer
- Division of Transplantation, Department of General Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf E Stauber
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Sharma A, Wang J, Gandhi CR. CD14 is not required for carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic inflammation and fibrosis with or without lipopolysaccharide challenge. J Cell Physiol 2023; 238:1530-1541. [PMID: 37098757 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.31030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Abstract
Binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to CD14 is required for its cellular effects via TLR4. A role of LPS/TLR4-mediated signaling in activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs), the major fibrogenic cells, in liver fibrosis has been reported. We investigated effects of LPS on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced fibrosis in CD14-knockout (KO) mice in vivo, and culture-activated HSCs in vitro. CCl4 (biweekly; 4 weeks)-treated wild type (WT) and CD14-KO mice were challenged with single LPS administration for 24 h. Liver injury, inflammation and fibrosis were determined. Culture-activated HSCs from WT or CD14-KO mice were stimulated with LPS. Parameters of fibrogenic activity (expression of collagen1a1 [Col1a1], α-smooth muscle actin [αSMA] and TGFβ1) and inflammatory cytokines/chemokines were measured. CCl4 treatment caused similar liver injury and fibrosis in WT and CD14-KO mice. LPS increased liver injury and inflammation similarly in CCl4-treated WT and CD14-KO mice, but downregulated Timp1 and upregulated Mmp13. LPS elicited similar NFκB activation and inflammatory response in WT and CD14-KO aHSCs. LPS similarly downregulated Acta2 (encodes αSMA), Pdgfrb, Col1a1 and Mmp13 expression but did not affect Timp1 expression in WT and CD14-KO aHSCs. LPS did not alter Tgfb1 but increased expression of decorin (Dcn) (inhibitor of TGFβ1) expression in WT and CD14-KO aHSCs. The results indicate that the effects of LPS on HSCs are CD14-independent, and CD14 is not required for hepatic fibrosis. LPS-induced down-modulation of fibrogenic markers in aHSCs is also CD14-independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Sharma
- Cincinnati Veterans Administration Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jiang Wang
- Department of Pathology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Chandrashekhar R Gandhi
- Cincinnati Veterans Administration Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Department of Surgery, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Gano A, Deak T, Pautassi RM. A review on the reciprocal interactions between neuroinflammatory processes and substance use and misuse, with a focus on alcohol misuse. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2023; 49:269-282. [PMID: 37148274 PMCID: PMC10524510 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2023.2201944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Background: The last decade has witnessed a surge of findings implicating neuroinflammatory processes as pivotal players in substance use disorders. The directionality of effects began with the expectation that the neuroinflammation associated with prolonged substance misuse contributes to long-term neuropathological consequences. As the literature grew, however, it became evident that the interactions between neuroinflammatory processes and alcohol and drug intake were reciprocal and part of a pernicious cycle in which disease-relevant signaling pathways contributed to an escalation of drug intake, provoking further inflammation-signaling and thereby exacerbating the neuropathological effects of drug misuse.Objectives: The goal of this review and its associated special issue is to provide an overview of the emergent findings relevant to understanding these reciprocal interactions. The review highlights the importance of preclinical and clinical studies in testing and validation of immunotherapeutics as viable targets for curtailing substance use and misuse, with a focus on alcohol misuse.Methods: A narrative review of the literature on drug and neuroinflammation was conducted, as well as articles published in this Special Issue on Alcohol- and Drug-induced Neuroinflammation: Insights from Pre-clinical Models and Clinical Research.Results: We argue that (a) demographic variables and genetic background contribute unique sensitivity to drug-related neuroinflammation; (b) co-morbidities between substance use disorders and affect dysfunction may share common inflammation-related signatures that predict the efficacy of immunotherapeutic drugs; and (c) examination of polydrug interactions with neuroinflammation is a critical area where greater research emphasis is needed.Conclusions: This review provides an accessible and example-driven review of the relationship between drug misuse, neuroinflammatory processes, and their resultant neuropathological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anny Gano
- Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, United States of America
| | - Terrence Deak
- Developmental Exposure Alcohol Research Center, Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, United States of America
| | - Ricardo Marcos Pautassi
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigación Médica M. y M. Ferreyra (INIMEC – CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Córdoba, 5000, Argentina
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