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Simona C, Venturi S, Tassi F, Simona R, Cabassi J, Capecchiacci F, Bicocchi G, Vaselli O, Morrison HG, Sogin ML, Fazi S. Geochemical and microbiological profiles in hydrothermal extreme acidic environments (Pisciarelli Spring, Campi Flegrei, Italy). FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2022; 98:6650346. [PMID: 35883234 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiac088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Although terrestrial hydrothermal systems are considered among the most fascinating environments, how their unique and extreme conditions can affect microorganisms selection and the role in biogeochemical cycles has not yet been well elucidated. A combined geochemical and microbiological exploration in waters and sediments from ten sampling points along a sharp temperature gradient (15-90 °C) within an extremely acidic hydrothermal system (Pisciarelli Spring, Campi Flegrei area, southern Italy) displayed how hydrothermal fluids influence the microbial dynamics. This area was characterized by high levels of reduced gaseous species (e.g. H2S, H2, CH4, CO), and very low pH values (<2.3). Thermodynamic calculations revealed a high microbial catabolic potential in oxidation/reduction reactions of N-, S-, and Fe-bearing species. Overall, an increase of the archaeal/bacterial abundance ratio was observed by decreasing temperature and pH values. In particular, Archaea and Bacteria were present in almost equal cell abundance (up to 1.1 × 109 and 9.3 × 108 cell/g, respectively) in the <70 °C sampling points (average pH = 2.09); on the contrary, highest temperature waters (85-90 °C; average pH = 2.26) were characterized by low abundance of archaeal cells. The high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA gene indicated strong differences in archaeal and bacterial communities' composition along temperature gradient. However, the microbiome in this extreme environment was mainly constituted by chemoautotrophic microorganisms that were likely involved in N-, S-, and Fe-bearing species transformations (e.g. Acidianus infernus, Ferroplasma acidarmanus, Acidithiobacillus, Sulfobacillus, Thaumarchaeota), in agreement with thermodynamic calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crognale Simona
- IRSA - CNR Water Research Institute, Via Salaria km 29.300 - CP10, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome (Italy)
| | - Stefania Venturi
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy).,IGG - CNR Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy)
| | - Franco Tassi
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy).,IGG - CNR Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy)
| | - Rossetti Simona
- IRSA - CNR Water Research Institute, Via Salaria km 29.300 - CP10, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome (Italy)
| | - Jacopo Cabassi
- IGG - CNR Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy)
| | - Francesco Capecchiacci
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy).,IGG - CNR Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy).,Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Sezione di Napoli, Osservatorio Vesuviano, Via Diocleziano 328, 80125 Napoli, Italy
| | - Gabriele Bicocchi
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy)
| | - Orlando Vaselli
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy).,IGG - CNR Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence (Italy)
| | | | | | - Stefano Fazi
- IRSA - CNR Water Research Institute, Via Salaria km 29.300 - CP10, 00015 Monterotondo, Rome (Italy)
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McKay LJ, Nigro OD, Dlakić M, Luttrell KM, Rusch DB, Fields MW, Inskeep WP. Sulfur cycling and host-virus interactions in Aquificales-dominated biofilms from Yellowstone's hottest ecosystems. THE ISME JOURNAL 2022; 16:842-855. [PMID: 34650231 PMCID: PMC8857204 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-01132-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Modern linkages among magmatic, geochemical, and geobiological processes provide clues about the importance of thermophiles in the origin of biogeochemical cycles. The aim of this study was to identify the primary chemoautotrophs and host-virus interactions involved in microbial colonization and biogeochemical cycling at sublacustrine, vapor-dominated vents that represent the hottest measured ecosystems in Yellowstone National Park (~140 °C). Filamentous microbial communities exposed to extreme thermal and geochemical gradients were sampled using a remotely operated vehicle and subjected to random metagenome sequencing and microscopic analyses. Sulfurihydrogenibium (phylum Aquificae) was the predominant lineage (up to 84% relative abundance) detected at vents that discharged high levels of dissolved H2, H2S, and CO2. Metabolic analyses indicated carbon fixation by Sulfurihydrogenibium spp. was powered by the oxidation of reduced sulfur and H2, which provides organic carbon for heterotrophic community members. Highly variable Sulfurihydrogenibium genomes suggested the importance of intra-population diversity under extreme environmental and viral pressures. Numerous lytic viruses (primarily unclassified taxa) were associated with diverse archaea and bacteria in the vent community. Five circular dsDNA uncultivated virus genomes (UViGs) of ~40 kbp length were linked to the Sulfurihydrogenibium metagenome-assembled genome (MAG) by CRISPR spacer matches. Four UViGs contained consistent genome architecture and formed a monophyletic cluster with the recently proposed Pyrovirus genus within the Caudovirales. Sulfurihydrogenibium spp. also contained CRISPR arrays linked to plasmid DNA with genes for a novel type IV filament system and a highly expressed β-barrel porin. A diverse suite of transcribed secretion systems was consistent with direct microscopic analyses, which revealed an extensive extracellular matrix likely critical to community structure and function. We hypothesize these attributes are fundamental to the establishment and survival of microbial communities in highly turbulent, extreme-gradient environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J. McKay
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Land Resources & Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Olivia D. Nigro
- grid.256872.c0000 0000 8741 0387Department of Natural Science, Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, HI 96813 USA
| | - Mensur Dlakić
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Karen M. Luttrell
- grid.64337.350000 0001 0662 7451Department of Geology & Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 USA
| | - Douglas B. Rusch
- grid.411377.70000 0001 0790 959XCenter for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
| | - Matthew W. Fields
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - William P. Inskeep
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Land Resources & Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
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Houghton KM, Carere CR, Stott MB, McDonald IR. Thermophilic methanotrophs: in hot pursuit. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2019; 95:5543213. [DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiz125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACTMethane is a potent greenhouse gas responsible for 20–30% of global climate change effects. The global methane budget is ∼500–600 Tg y−1, with the majority of methane produced via microbial processes, including anthropogenic-mediated sources such as ruminant animals, rice fields, sewage treatment facilities and landfills. It is estimated that microbially mediated methane oxidation (methanotrophy) consumes >50% of global methane flux each year. Methanotrophy research has primarily focused on mesophilic methanotrophic representatives and cooler environments such as freshwater, wetlands or marine habitats from which they are sourced. Nevertheless, geothermal emissions of geological methane, produced from magma and lithosphere degassing micro-seepages, mud volcanoes and other geological sources, contribute an estimated 33–75 Tg y−1 to the global methane budget. The aim of this review is to summarise current literature pertaining to the activity of thermophilic and thermotolerant methanotrophs, both proteobacterial (Methylocaldum, Methylococcus, Methylothermus) and verrucomicrobial (Methylacidiphilum). We assert, on the basis of recently reported molecular and geochemical data, that geothermal ecosystems host hitherto unidentified species capable of methane oxidation at higher temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Houghton
- GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, 114 Karetoto Rd, Taupō 3384, New Zealand
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Knighton Rd, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
| | - Carlo R Carere
- GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, 114 Karetoto Rd, Taupō 3384, New Zealand
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Upper Riccarton, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Matthew B Stott
- GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, 114 Karetoto Rd, Taupō 3384, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Upper Riccarton, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Ian R McDonald
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Knighton Rd, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
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Abstract
The general notion of an "RNA world" is that, in the early development of life on the Earth, genetic continuity was assured by the replication of RNA, and RNA molecules were the chief agents of catalytic function. Assuming that all of the components of RNA were available in some prebiotic locale, these components could have assembled into activated nucleotides that condensed to form RNA polymers, setting the stage for the chemical replication of polynucleotides through RNA-templated RNA polymerization. If a sufficient diversity of RNAs could be copied with reasonable rate and fidelity, then Darwinian evolution would begin with RNAs that facilitated their own reproduction enjoying a selective advantage. The concept of a "protocell" refers to a compartment where replication of the primitive genetic material took place and where primitive catalysts gave rise to products that accumulated locally for the benefit of the replicating cellular entity. Replication of both the protocell and its encapsulated genetic material would have enabled natural selection to operate based on the differential fitness of competing cellular entities, ultimately giving rise to modern cellular life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald F Joyce
- The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Jack W Szostak
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
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Yang Y, Mu Y, Zeng XC, Wu W, Yuan J, Liu Y, Guoji E, Luo F, Chen X, Li H, Wang J. Functional genes and thermophilic microorganisms responsible for arsenite oxidation from the shallow sediment of an untraversed hot spring outlet. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2017; 26:490-501. [PMID: 28251437 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-017-1779-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Hot Springs have unique geochemical features. Microorganisms-mediated arsenite oxidation is one of the major biogeochemical processes occurred in some hot springs. This study aimed to understand the diversities of genes and microorganisms involved in arsenite oxidation from the outlet of an untraversed hot spring located at an altitude of 4226 m. Microcosm assay indicated that the microbial community from the hot spring was able to efficiently oxidize As(III) using glucose, lactic acid, yeast extract or sodium bicarbonate as the sole carbon source. The microbial community contained 7 phyla of microorganisms, of which Proteobacteria and Firmicutes are largely dominant; this composition is unique and differs significantly from those of other described hot springs. Twenty one novel arsenite oxidase genes were identified from the samples, which are affiliated with the arsenite oxidase families of α-Proteobacteria, β-Proteobacteria or Archaea; this highlights the high diversity of the arsenite-oxidizing microorganisms from the hot spring. A cultivable arsenite-oxidizer Chelatococcu sp. GHS311 was also isolated from the sample using enrichment technique. It can completely convert 75.0 mg/L As(III) into As(V) in 18 days at 45 °C. The arsenite oxidase of GHS311 shares the maximal sequence identity (84.7%) to that of Hydrogenophaga sp. CL3, a non-thermotolerant bacterium. At the temperature lower than 30 °C or higher than 65 °C, the growth of this strain was completely inhibited. These data help us to better understand the diversity and functional features of the thermophilic arsenite-oxidizing microorganisms from hot springs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Yao Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Xian-Chun Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China.
| | - Weiwei Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Yichen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - E Guoji
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Feng Luo
- School of Medicine, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiaoming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology & Department of Biological Science and Technology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
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Jay ZJ, Beam JP, Kozubal MA, Jennings RD, Rusch DB, Inskeep WP. The distribution, diversity and function of predominant Thermoproteales in high-temperature environments of Yellowstone National Park. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:4755-4769. [PMID: 27130276 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
High-temperature environments (> 70°C) contain diverse and abundant members of the crenarchaeal order Thermoproteales. However, a comprehensive study of the distribution and function of diverse members of this group across different habitat types has not been conducted. Consequently, the goals of this study were to determine the distribution of different Thermoproteales genera across geochemically distinct geothermal habitats of Yellowstone National Park, and to identify key functional attributes of major genera that correlate with environmental parameters. Curated sequence assemblies belonging to five genera were characterized in replicate samples of 11 high-temperature communities ranging in pH from 3 to 9. Thermocladium, Vulcanisaeta and Caldivirga spp. were the primary Thermoproteales populations present in low pH (pH < 5) habitats, whereas Thermoproteus populations were found in mildly-acidic (pH 5-6) sulfur sediments, and Pyrobaculum populations were confined to higher pH (pH > 6) sulfur sediments and/or filamentous 'streamer' communities. Metabolic reconstruction and comparative genomics among assemblies show that these populations are primarily chemoorganotrophs that utilize different electron acceptors depending on geochemical conditions. The presence of potential CO2 fixation pathways in some Thermoproteales populations appears to be linked with NiFe hydrogenases, which combined with high levels of H2 in many sulfidic systems, may provide the energy required to fix inorganic C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zackary J Jay
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59175-3120, USA
| | - Jacob P Beam
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59175-3120, USA
| | - Mark A Kozubal
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59175-3120, USA
| | - Ryan deM Jennings
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59175-3120, USA
| | - Douglas B Rusch
- Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - William P Inskeep
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59175-3120, USA
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Kurilkina MI, Zakharova YR, Galachyants YP, Petrova DP, Bukin YS, Domysheva VM, Blinov VV, Likhoshway YV. Bacterial community composition in the water column of the deepest freshwater Lake Baikal as determined by next-generation sequencing. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2016; 92:fiw094. [PMID: 27162182 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The composition of bacterial communities in Lake Baikal in different hydrological periods and at different depths (down to 1515 m) has been analyzed using pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene V3 variable region. Most of the resulting 34 562 reads of the Bacteria domain have clustered into 1693 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) classified with the phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria and Cyanobacteria. It has been found that their composition at the family level and relative contributions to bacterial communities distributed over the water column vary depending on hydrological period. The number of OTUs and the parameters of taxonomic richness (ACE, Chao1 indices) and diversity (Shannon and inverse Simpson index) reach the highest values in water layers. The composition of bacterial communities in these layers remains relatively constant, whereas that in surface layers differs between hydrological seasons. The dynamics of physicochemical conditions over the water column and their relative constancy in deep layers are decisive factors in shaping the pattern of bacterial communities in Lake Baikal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria I Kurilkina
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Yulia R Zakharova
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Yuri P Galachyants
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Darya P Petrova
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Yuri S Bukin
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Valentina M Domysheva
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Vadim V Blinov
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Yelena V Likhoshway
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
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Kan J, Clingenpeel S, Dow CL, McDermott TR, Macur RE, Inskeep WP, Nealson KH. Geochemistry and Mixing Drive the Spatial Distribution of Free-Living Archaea and Bacteria in Yellowstone Lake. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:210. [PMID: 26973602 PMCID: PMC4770039 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Yellowstone Lake, the largest subalpine lake in the United States, harbors great novelty and diversity of Bacteria and Archaea. Size-fractionated water samples (0.1–0.8, 0.8–3.0, and 3.0–20 μm) were collected from surface photic zone, deep mixing zone, and vent fluids at different locations in the lake by using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Quantification with real-time PCR indicated that Bacteria dominated free-living microorganisms with Bacteria/Archaea ratios ranging from 4037:1 (surface water) to 25:1 (vent water). Microbial population structures (both Bacteria and Archaea) were assessed using 454-FLX sequencing with a total of 662,302 pyrosequencing reads for V1 and V2 regions of 16S rRNA genes. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analyses indicated that strong spatial distribution patterns existed from surface to deep vents for free-living Archaea and Bacteria in the lake. Along with pH, major vent-associated geochemical constituents including CH4, CO2, H2, DIC (dissolved inorganic carbon), DOC (dissolved organic carbon), SO42-, O2 and metals were likely the major drivers for microbial population structures, however, mixing events occurring in the lake also impacted the distribution patterns. Distinct Bacteria and Archaea were present among size fractions, and bigger size fractions included particle-associated microbes (> 3 μm) and contained higher predicted operational taxonomic unit richness and microbial diversities (genus level) than free-living ones (<0.8 μm). Our study represents the first attempt at addressing the spatial distribution of Bacteria and Archaea in Yellowstone Lake, and our results highlight the variable contribution of Archaea and Bacteria to the hydrogeochemical-relevant metabolism of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjun Kan
- Stroud Water Research Center, Avondale PA, USA
| | | | | | - Timothy R McDermott
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman MT, USA
| | - Richard E Macur
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman MT, USA
| | - William P Inskeep
- Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman MT, USA
| | - Kenneth H Nealson
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles CA, USA
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