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Liu X, Liu Y, Wang Y, Wang D, Johnson KS, Xie Z. The Hypoxia-Associated Localization of Chemotaxis Protein CheZ in Azorhizorbium caulinodans. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:731419. [PMID: 34737727 PMCID: PMC8563088 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.731419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial organization of chemotactic proteins is important for cooperative response to external stimuli. However, factors affecting the localization dynamics of chemotaxis proteins are less studied. According to some reports, the polar localization of chemotaxis system I is induced by hypoxia and starvation in Vibrio cholerae. However, in V. cholerae, the chemotaxis system I is not involved in flagellum-mediated chemotaxis, and it may play other alternative cellular functions. In this study, we found that the polar localization of CheZ, a phosphatase regulating chemotactic movement in Azorhizobium caulinodans ORS571, can also be affected by hypoxia and cellular energy-status. The conserved phosphatase active site D165 and the C-terminus of CheZ are essential for the energy-related localization, indicating a cross link between hypoxia-related localization changes and phosphatase activity of CheZ. Furthermore, three of five Aer-like chemoreceptors containing PAS domains participate in the cellular localization of CheZ. In contrast to carbon starvation, free-living nitrogen fixation can alleviate the role of nitrogen limitation and hypoxia on polar localization of CheZ. These results showed that the localization changes induced by hypoxia might be a strategy for bacteria to adapt to complex environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, China.,College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, China.,College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yixuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, China.,College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dandan Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Efficient Utilization of Soil and Fertilizer Resources, College of Resources and Environment of Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, China
| | - Kevin Scot Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States
| | - Zhihong Xie
- National Engineering Laboratory for Efficient Utilization of Soil and Fertilizer Resources, College of Resources and Environment of Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, China
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2
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Wang D, Flint SH, Gagic D, Palmer JS, Fletcher GC, On SLW. In silico analysis revealing CsrA roles in motility-sessility switching and tuning VBNC cells in Vibrio parahaemolyticus. BIOFOULING 2021; 37:680-688. [PMID: 34369215 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2021.1955357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The formation of biofilms is a survival strategy employed by bacteria to help protect them from changing or unfavourable environments. In this research, 319 genes which govern biofilm formation in V. parahaemolyticus, as reported in 1,625 publications, were analysed using protein-protein-interaction (PPI) network analysis. CsrA was identified as a motility-sessility switch and biofilm formation regulator. Through robust rank aggregation (RRA) analysis of GSE65340, the generation of viable but non-culturable (VBNC) cells that may enhance cell tolerance to stress, was found to be associated with the TCA cycle and carbon metabolism biological pathways. The finding that CsrA is likely to play a role in the development of VBNC cells improves understanding of the molecular mechanisms of VBNC formation in V. parahaemolyticus and contributes to on-going efforts to reduce the hazard posed by this foodborne pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wang
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Steve H Flint
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Dragana Gagic
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jon S Palmer
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Graham C Fletcher
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Stephen L W On
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
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3
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Arroyo-Pérez EE, Ringgaard S. Interdependent Polar Localization of FlhF and FlhG and Their Importance for Flagellum Formation of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:655239. [PMID: 33815347 PMCID: PMC8009987 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.655239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Failure of the cell to properly regulate the number and intracellular positioning of their flagella, has detrimental effects on the cells’ swimming ability. The flagellation pattern of numerous bacteria is regulated by the NTPases FlhF and FlhG. In general, FlhG controls the number of flagella produced, whereas FlhF coordinates the position of the flagella. In the human pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus, its single flagellum is positioned and formed at the old cell pole. Here, we describe the spatiotemporal localization of FlhF and FlhG in V. parahaemolyticus and their effect on swimming motility. Absence of either FlhF or FlhG caused a significant defect in swimming ability, resulting in absence of flagella in a ΔflhF mutant and an aberrant flagellated phenotype in ΔflhG. Both proteins localized to the cell pole in a cell cycle-dependent manner, but displayed different patterns of localization throughout the cell cycle. FlhF transitioned from a uni- to bi-polar localization, as observed in other polarly flagellated bacteria. Localization of FlhG was strictly dependent on the cell pole-determinant HubP, while polar localization of FlhF was HubP independent. Furthermore, localization of FlhF and FlhG was interdependent and required for each other’s proper intracellular localization and recruitment to the cell pole. In the absence of HubP or FlhF, FlhG forms non-polar foci in the cytoplasm of the cell, suggesting the possibility of a secondary localization site within the cell besides its recruitment to the cell poles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Eligio Arroyo-Pérez
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany.,Department of Biology I, Microbiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Biology I, Microbiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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4
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Freitas C, Glatter T, Ringgaard S. Specific proteomic adaptation to distinct environments in Vibrio parahaemolyticus includes significant fluctuations in expression of essential proteins. Environ Microbiol 2020; 22:4279-4294. [PMID: 32219943 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria constantly experience changes to their external milieu and need to adapt accordingly to ensure their survival. Certain bacteria adapt by means of cellular differentiation, resulting in the development of a specific cell type that is specialized for life in a distinct environment. Furthermore, to understand how bacteria adapt, it is essential to appreciate the significant changes that occur at the proteomic level. By analysing the proteome of our model organism Vibrio parahaemolyticus from distinct environmental conditions and cellular differential states, we demonstrate that the proteomic expression profile is highly flexible, which likely allows it to adapt to life in different environmental conditions and habitats. We show that, even within the same swarm colony, there are specific zones of cells with distinct expression profiles. Furthermore, our data indicate that cell surface attachment and swarmer cell differentiation are distinct programmes that require specific proteomic expression profiles. This likely allows V. parahaemolyticus to adapt to life in different environmental conditions and habitats. Finally, our analyses reveal that the expression profile of the essential protein pool is highly fluid, with significant fluctuations that dependent on the specific life-style, environment and differentiation state of the bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Freitas
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, 35043, Germany
| | - Timo Glatter
- Core Facility for Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, 35043, Germany
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, 35043, Germany
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5
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Freitas C, Glatter T, Ringgaard S. The release of a distinct cell type from swarm colonies facilitates dissemination of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the environment. ISME JOURNAL 2019; 14:230-244. [PMID: 31624347 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0521-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria experience changes in their environment and have developed various strategies to respond accordingly. To accommodate environmental changes, certain bacteria differentiate between specialized cell types. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine bacterium, a worldwide human pathogen and the leading agent of seafood-borne gastroenteritis. It exists as swimmer or swarmer cells, specialized for life in liquid and on solid environments, respectively. Swarmer cells are characteristically highly elongated-a morphology important for swarming behavior. When attached to surfaces it forms swarm colonies, however, it is not known how cells within swarming populations respond to changes in the external milieu and how its distinct life cycle influences its ecological dissemination. The worldwide distribution of V. parahaemolyticus accentuates the need for understanding the factors contributing to its dissemination. Here we determine the stage-wise development of swarm colonies and show how the swarm colony architecture fluctuates with changing environmental conditions. Swarm colonies act as a continuous source of cells that are released from the swarm colony into the environment. Surprisingly, the cell length distribution of released cells was very homogenous and almost no long cells were detected, indicating that swarmer cells are not released into the liquid environment but stay surface attached during flooding. Released cells comprise a distinct cell type that is morphologically optimized for swimming behavior and is capable of spreading in the liquid environment and attach to new surfaces. Release of this distinct cell type facilitates the dissemination of V. parahaemolyticus in the environment and likely influences the ecology of this bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Freitas
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Timo Glatter
- Core Facility for Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.
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6
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Yang W, Briegel A. Diversity of Bacterial Chemosensory Arrays. Trends Microbiol 2019; 28:68-80. [PMID: 31473052 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Chemotaxis is crucial for the survival of bacteria, and the signaling systems associated with it exhibit a high level of evolutionary conservation. The architecture of the chemosensory array and the signal transduction mechanisms have been extensively studied in Escherichia coli. More recent studies have revealed a vast diversity of the chemosensory system among bacteria. Unlike E. coli, some bacteria assemble more than one chemosensory array and respond to a broader spectrum of environmental and internal stimuli. These chemosensory arrays exhibit a great variability in terms of protein composition, cellular localization, and functional variability. Here, we present recent findings that emphasize the extent of diversity in chemosensory arrays and highlight the importance of studying chemosensory arrays in bacteria other than the common model organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yang
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ariane Briegel
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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7
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Lamb E, Trimble MJ, McCarter LL. Cell-cell communication, chemotaxis and recruitment in Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Mol Microbiol 2019; 112:99-113. [PMID: 30938898 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Motile bacteria are proficient at finding optimal environments for colonization. Often, they use chemotaxis to sense nutrient availability and dangerous concentrations of toxic chemicals. For many bacteria, the repertoire of chemoreceptors is large, suggesting they possess a broad palate with respect to sensing. However, knowledge of the molecules detected by chemotaxis signal transduction systems is limited. Some bacteria, like Vibrio parahaemolyticus, are social and swarm in groups on surfaces. This marine bacterium and human pathogen secretes the S signal autoinducer, which cues degradation of intracellular c-di-GMP leading to transcription of the swarming program. Here, we report that the S signal also directs motility at a behavioral level by serving as a chemoattractant. The data demonstrate that V. parahaemolyticus senses the S signal using SscL and SscS, homologous methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins. SscL is required by planktonic bacteria for S signal chemotaxis. SscS plays a role during swarming, and mutants lacking this chemoreceptor swarm faster and produce colonies with more deeply branched swarming fronts than the wild type or the sscL mutant. Other Vibrio species can swim toward the S signal, suggesting a recruitment role for this cell-cell communication molecule in the context of polymicrobial marine communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Lamb
- The Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Michael J Trimble
- The Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Linda L McCarter
- The Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
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8
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Abstract
The chemoreceptor array, a remarkably ordered supramolecular complex, is composed of hexagonally packed trimers of receptor dimers networked by a histidine kinase and one or more coupling proteins. Even though the receptor packing is universal among chemotactic bacteria and archaea, the array architecture has been extensively studied only in selected model organisms. Here, we show that even in the complete absence of the kinase, the cluster II arrays in Vibrio cholerae retain their native spatial localization and the iconic hexagonal packing of the receptors with 12-nm spacing. Our results demonstrate that the chemotaxis array is versatile in composition, a property that allows auxiliary chemotaxis proteins such as ParP and CheV to integrate directly into the assembly. Along with its compositional variability, cluster II arrays exhibit a low degree of structural stability compared with the ultrastable arrays in Escherichia coli We propose that the variability in chemoreceptor arrays is an important mechanism that enables the incorporation of chemotaxis proteins based on their availability.
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9
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Muraleedharan S, Freitas C, Mann P, Glatter T, Ringgaard S. A cell length-dependent transition in MinD-dynamics promotes a switch in division-site placement and preservation of proliferating elongated Vibrio parahaemolyticus
swarmer cells. Mol Microbiol 2018; 109:365-384. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samada Muraleedharan
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology; Marburg 35043 Germany
| | - Carolina Freitas
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology; Marburg 35043 Germany
| | - Petra Mann
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology; Marburg 35043 Germany
| | - Timo Glatter
- Core facility for Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology; Marburg 35043 Germany
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology; Marburg 35043 Germany
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10
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Ringgaard S, Yang W, Alvarado A, Schirner K, Briegel A. Chemotaxis arrays in Vibrio species and their intracellular positioning by the ParC/ParP system. J Bacteriol 2018; 200:e00793-17. [PMID: 29531180 PMCID: PMC6040185 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00793-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Most motile bacteria are able to bias their movement towards more favorable environments or to escape from obnoxious substances by a process called chemotaxis. Chemotaxis depends on a chemosensory system that is able to sense specific environmental signals and generate a behavioral response. Typically, the signal is transmitted to the bacterial flagellum, ultimately regulating the swimming behavior of individual cells. Chemotaxis is mediated by proteins that assemble into large, highly ordered arrays. It is imperative for successful chemotactic behavior and cellular competitiveness that chemosensory arrays form and localize properly within the cell. Here we review how chemotaxis arrays form and localize in Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus We focus on how the ParC/ParP-system mediates cell cycle-dependent polar localization of chemotaxis arrays and thus ensures proper cell pole development and array inheritance upon cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Ringgaard
- Departmet of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Wen Yang
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Alejandra Alvarado
- Departmet of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | | | - Ariane Briegel
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
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11
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Alvarado A, Kjær A, Yang W, Mann P, Briegel A, Waldor MK, Ringgaard S. Coupling chemosensory array formation and localization. eLife 2017; 6:31058. [PMID: 29058677 PMCID: PMC5706961 DOI: 10.7554/elife.31058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemotaxis proteins organize into large, highly ordered, chemotactic signaling arrays, which in Vibrio species are found at the cell pole. Proper localization of signaling arrays is mediated by ParP, which tethers arrays to a cell pole anchor, ParC. Here we show that ParP’s C-terminus integrates into the core-unit of signaling arrays through interactions with MCP-proteins and CheA. Its intercalation within core-units stimulates array formation, whereas its N-terminal interaction domain enables polar recruitment of arrays and facilitates its own polar localization. Linkage of these domains within ParP couples array formation and localization and results in controlled array positioning at the cell pole. Notably, ParP’s integration into arrays modifies its own and ParC’s subcellular localization dynamics, promoting their polar retention. ParP serves as a critical nexus that regulates the localization dynamics of its network constituents and drives the localized assembly and stability of the chemotactic machinery, resulting in proper cell pole development. Many bacteria live in a liquid environment and explore their surroundings by swimming. When in search of food, bacteria are able to swim toward the highest concentration of food molecules in the environment by a process called chemotaxis. Proteins important for chemotaxis group together in large networks called chemotaxis arrays. In the bacterium Vibrio cholerae chemotaxis arrays are placed at opposite ends (at the “cell poles”) of the bacterium by a protein called ParP. This makes sure that when the bacterium divides, each new cell receives a chemotaxis array and can immediately search for food. In cells that lack ParP, the chemotaxis arrays are no longer placed correctly at the cell poles and the bacteria search for food much less effectively. To understand how ParP is able to direct chemotaxis arrays to the cell poles in V. cholerae Alvarado et al. searched for partner proteins that could help ParP position the arrays. The search revealed that ParP interacts with other proteins in the chemotaxis arrays. This enables ParP to integrate into the arrays and stimulate new arrays to form. Alvarado et al. also discovered that ParP consists of two separate parts that have different roles. One part directs ParP to the cell pole while the other part integrates ParP into the arrays. By performing both of these roles, ParP links the positioning of the arrays at the cell pole to their formation at this site. The findings presented by Alvarado et al. open many further questions. For instance, it is not understood how ParP affects how other chemotaxis proteins within the arrays interact with each other. As well as enabling many species of bacteria to spread through their environment, chemotaxis is also important for the disease-causing properties of many human pathogens – like V. cholerae. As a result, learning how chemotaxis is regulated could potentially identify new ways to stop the spread of infectious bacteria and prevent human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Alvarado
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Kjær
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Wen Yang
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Petra Mann
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ariane Briegel
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Matthew K Waldor
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
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12
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Heering J, Alvarado A, Ringgaard S. Induction of Cellular Differentiation and Single Cell Imaging of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Swimmer and Swarmer Cells. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28570527 DOI: 10.3791/55842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to study the intracellular localization of proteins is essential for the understanding of many cellular processes. In turn, this requires the ability to obtain single cells for fluorescence microscopy, which can be particularly challenging when imaging cells that exist within bacterial communities. For example, the human pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus exists as short rod-shaped swimmer cells in liquid conditions that upon surface contact differentiate into a subpopulation of highly elongated swarmer cells specialized for growth on solid surfaces. This paper presents a method to perform single cell fluorescence microscopy analysis of V. parahaemolyticus in its two differential states. This protocol very reproducibly induces differentiation of V. parahaemolyticus into a swarmer cell life-cycle and facilitates their proliferation over solid surfaces. The method produces flares of differentiated swarmer cells extending from the edge of the swarm-colony. Notably, at the very tip of the swarm-flares, swarmer cells exist in a single layer of cells, which allows for their easy transfer to a microscope slide and subsequent fluorescence microscopy imaging of single cells. Additionally, the workflow of image analysis for demographic representation of bacterial societies is presented. As a proof of principle, the analysis of the intracellular localization of chemotaxis signaling arrays in swimmer and swarmer cells of V. parahaemolyticus is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Heering
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology
| | - Alejandra Alvarado
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology
| | - Simon Ringgaard
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology;
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