Plant Dynamic Metabolic Response to Bacteriophage Treatment After Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris Infection

Characterization of four Acidovorax phages and their potential in phage biocontrol for lamb's lettuce seed decontamination

Bacterial black spot, caused by Acidovorax valerianellae, is responsible for significant yield losses in lamb's lettuce (Valerianella locusta) in many producing countries, especially Europe. Currently, no resistant varieties of V. locusta are available that effectively control the disease under field conditions. Bacteriophage-based biocontrol has been suggested as a sustainable and natural alternative strategy to combat bacterial pathogens. In this study, novel phages infecting A. valerianellae and Acidovorax cattleyae, Alfacinha1, Alfacinha3, Acica, and Aval, were isolated and characterized. Based on comparative genomics, these phages represent three new phage genera. Aval and Acica phages revealed genomic features characteristic of temperate lifestyle, encoding toxins likely associated with lysogenic conversion, which contrasts with Alfacinha1 and Alfacinha3. The latter was selected for application as a biocontrol agent during seed steeping. This phage reaches an 87% reduction in the A. valerianellae concentration on artificially infested seeds. Importantly, this reduction results in an increased germination rate from 58.9% to 93.3%. Moreover, the infected seedlings had a dramatic reduction in vigor index after 22 days of growth, whereas the phage-treated ones had a vigor index similar to the negative control, reinforcing the ability of bacteriophages to effectively reduce disease progression. We further evaluated the impact of lipopolysaccharides in phage suspensions on the development of seedlings. Here, we demonstrated that the presence of lipopolysaccharides do have an impact on seedling development, significantly reducing the number of roots developed. This study shows how genomic analyses and tailored bioassays represent an essential route to ensure safe phage application and demonstrates the potential of a phage-based biocontrol strategy against A. valerianellae.IMPORTANCEBacteria continue to globally cause serious damage to a variety of crops. One example is a bacterial black spot of lamb's lettuce caused by Acidovorax valerianellae. It has spread across Europe, resulting in economic losses of at least 10% in tonnage annually. Faced with the inefficiency of conventional control methods, an alternative and sustainable strategy based on the use of bacteriophages was pursued in this study. We present for the first time the isolation and characterization of A. valerianellae-specific phages. Moreover, we assessed their biocontrol potential in seed decontamination since the disease primarily spreads from seeds to seedlings. Interestingly, seed treatment with one of our phages reaches an 87% reduction in bacterial concentration. More importantly, this reduction results in an increased germination rate from 58.9% to 93.3%. Finally, our study demonstrated for the first time the need for removing endotoxins from phage suspensions as they impact plant development when used as a biocontrol agent.

Synergistic antibacterial activity of Lactococcus lactis and Xylella phage MATE 2 for an effective biocontrol strategy against black rot disease in broccoli

Black rot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc), is considered the most destructive disease affecting cruciferous vegetables, resulting in significant losses worldwide. The need for biocontrol agents against Xcc that can reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, enhance sustainability, and ensure crops and environmental health is crucial. Combining phages with other antibacterial agents (i.e., antibiotics and bacteriocins) to treat bacterial infections is gaining increased attention due to the frequently observed synergistic effects. This study introduces for the first time the combination of a lytic phage, i.e., Xylella phage MATE 2 (MATE 2) with nisin-producing Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis (L. lactis) bacterium as an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and practical strategy for controlling Xcc in cruciferous vegetables. The antibacterial efficacy of MATE 2 and L. lactis, individually and in combination, against Xcc was investigated through a series of in vitro assays and in planta experiments conducted on broccoli plants. The time-killing curves results showed that under conditions of reduced Xcc population concentration (103 CFU/mL), MATE 2 at 108 PFU/mL exerted a persistent inhibitory effect on Xcc growth for 7 days. The Spot assays and v-qPCR analysis showed that both L. lactis and its bacteriocin nisin have significant antibacterial potential to contrast Xcc. Furthermore, combined application of MATE 2 and L. lactis in broccoli plants by foliar spraying generated significant synergistic efficacy in preventing Xcc infections, achieving a 71% reduction in symptoms, compared with 64 and 38% for single applications, respectively. In this study, the positive synergistic effect of the combined application of phage and beneficial bacteria in preventing black rot disease underscores this eco-friendly and cost-effective approach as a promising control measure against plant bacterial diseases.

Study of cabbage antioxidant system response on early infection stage of Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris

Black rot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) significantly affects the production of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables. Plant antioxidant system plays an important role in pathogen invasion and is one of the main mechanisms underlying resistance to biological stress. Therefore, it is important to study the resistance mechanisms of the cabbage antioxidant system during the early stages of Xcc. In this study, 108 CFU/mL (OD600 = 0.1) Xcc race1 was inoculated on "zhonggan 11" cabbage using the spraying method. The effects of Xcc infection on the antioxidant system before and after Xcc inoculation (0, 1, 3, and 5 d) were studied by physiological indexes determination, transcriptome and metabolome analyses. We concluded that early Xcc infection can destroy the balance of the active oxygen metabolism system, increase the generation of free radicals, and decrease the scavenging ability, leading to membrane lipid peroxidation, resulting in the destruction of the biofilm system and metabolic disorders. In response to Xcc infection, cabbage clears a series of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during Xcc infection via various antioxidant pathways. The activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) increased after Xcc infection, and the ROS scavenging rate increased. The biosynthesis of non-obligate antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH), is also enhanced after Xcc infection. Moreover, the alkaloid and vitamin contents increased significantly after Xcc infection. We concluded that cabbage could resist Xcc invasion by maintaining the stability of the cell membrane system and improving the biosynthesis of antioxidant substances and enzymes after infection by Xcc. Our results provide theoretical basis and data support for subsequent research on the cruciferous vegetables resistance mechanism and breeding to Xcc.

Antibiotic Resistance in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria: Recent Data and Environmental Impact of Unchecked Use and the Potential of Biocontrol Agents as an Eco-Friendly Alternative

The economic impact of phytopathogenic bacteria on agriculture is staggering, costing billions of US dollars globally. Pseudomonas syringae is the top most phytopathogenic bacteria, having more than 60 pathovars, which cause bacteria speck in tomatoes, halo blight in beans, and so on. Although antibiotics or a combination of antibiotics are used to manage infectious diseases in plants, they are employed far less in agriculture compared to human and animal populations. Moreover, the majority of antibiotics used in plants are immediately washed away, leading to environmental damage to ecosystems and food chains. Due to the serious risk of antibiotic resistance (AR) and the potential for environmental contamination with antibiotic residues and resistance genes, the use of unchecked antibiotics against phytopathogenic bacteria is not advisable. Despite the significant concern regarding AR in the world today, there are inadequate and outdated data on the AR of phytopathogenic bacteria. This review presents recent AR data on plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), along with their environmental impact. In light of these findings, we suggest the use of biocontrol agents as a sustainable, eco-friendly, and effective alternative to controlling phytopathogenic bacteria.

Nano-emulsion encapsulation for the efficient delivery of bacteriophage therapeutics

Antibiotic resistance has become the major concern for global public health. Phage therapy is being considered as an alternative for antibiotics to treat the multidrug resistant bacterial infections. Bacteriophage therapeutic developments has faced many challenges, including the drug formulations for sustainable phage delivery. The nano-emulsion platform has been described as the best approach to retain phage efficacy, shelf life and stability. Encapsulated phage drugs ensure stable delivery of phages to the target site and integrate in the system. In this review, our main focus is on the nano-emulsion encapsulation of bacteriophages and its effects towards the phage therapeutic development.

Characterisation of New Foxunavirus Phage Murka with the Potential of Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris Control

Phages of phytopathogenic bacteria are considered to be promising agents for the biological control of bacterial diseases in plants. This paper reports on the isolation and characterisation of a new Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris phage, Murka. Phage morphology and basic kinetic characteristics of the infection were determined, and a phylogenomic analysis was performed. The phage was able to lyse a reasonably broad range (64%, 9 of the 14 of the Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris strains used in the study) of circulating strains of the cabbage black rot pathogen. This lytic myovirus has a DNA genome of 44,044 bp and contains 83 predicted genes. Taxonomically, it belongs to the genus Foxunavirus. This bacteriophage is promising for use as a possible means of biological control of cabbage black rot.

The Safety of Bacteriophages in Treatment of Diseases Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria

Given the urgency due to the rapid emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, bacteriophages (phages), which are viruses that specifically target and kill bacteria, are rising as a potential alternative to antibiotics. In recent years, researchers have begun to elucidate the safety aspects of phage therapy with the aim of ensuring safe and effective clinical applications. While phage therapy has generally been demonstrated to be safe and tolerable among animals and humans, the current research on phage safety monitoring lacks sufficient and consistent data. This emphasizes the critical need for a standardized phage safety assessment to ensure a more reliable evaluation of its safety profile. Therefore, this review aims to bridge the knowledge gap concerning phage safety for treating MDR bacterial infections by covering various aspects involving phage applications, including phage preparation, administration, and the implications for human health and the environment.

Biofilm-Forming Ability of Phytopathogenic Bacteria: A Review of its Involvement in Plant Stress

Phytopathogenic bacteria not only affect crop yield and quality but also the environment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in their survival is essential to develop new strategies to control plant disease. One such mechanism is the formation of biofilms; i.e., microbial communities within a three-dimensional structure that offers adaptive advantages, such as protection against unfavorable environmental conditions. Biofilm-producing phytopathogenic bacteria are difficult to manage. They colonize the intercellular spaces and the vascular system of the host plants and cause a wide range of symptoms such as necrosis, wilting, leaf spots, blight, soft rot, and hyperplasia. This review summarizes up-to-date information about saline and drought stress in plants (abiotic stress) and then goes on to focus on the biotic stress produced by biofilm-forming phytopathogenic bacteria, which are responsible for serious disease in many crops. Their characteristics, pathogenesis, virulence factors, systems of cellular communication, and the molecules implicated in the regulation of these processes are all covered.

Natural Products-Based Botanical Bactericides Discovery: Novel Abietic Acid Derivatives as Anti-Virulence Agents for Plant Disease Management

The discovery of natural product-based pesticides is critical for agriculture. In this work, a series of novel tricyclic diterpenoid derivatives decorated with an amino alcohol moiety were elaborately prepared from natural abietic acid, and their antibacterial behavior was explored. Bioassay results indicated that compound C₂ exhibited the most promising bioactivity (EC₅₀ = 0.555 μg mL^-1) against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), about 73 times higher than the effect of commercial thiodiazole copper (TC). Results of in vivo bioassays showed that compound C₂ displayed significantly higher control of rice bacterial leaf blight (curative activity: 63.8%; protective activity: 58.4%) than TC (curative activity: 43.6%; protective activity: 40.8%), and their bioactivity could be improved maximally 16% by supplementing the auxiliaries. Antibacterial behavior suggested that compound C₂ could suppress various virulence factors. Overall, these findings suggested that new botanical bactericide candidates could control intractable plant bacterial diseases by suppressing virulence factors.

Research on Diffusible Signal Factor-Mediated Quorum Sensing in Xanthomonas: A Mini-Review

Xanthomonas spp. are important plant pathogens that seriously endanger crop yields and food security. RpfF is a key enzyme that is involved in the synthesis of diffusible signal factor (DSF) signals and predominates in the signaling pathway regulating quorum sensing (QS) in Xanthomonas. Currently, novel RpfF enzyme-based quorum sensing agents have been proposed as a promising strategy for the development of new pesticides. However, few reports are available that comprehensively summarize the progress in this field. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive review of the recent advances in DSF-mediated QS and recently reported inhibitors that are proposed as bactericide candidates to target the RpfF enzyme and control plant bacterial diseases.

Isolation, characterization and genome analysis of an orphan phage FoX4 of the new Foxquatrovirus genus

The growing interest in the therapeutic application of bacteriophages leads to a drastic increase in the number of sequenced genomes. Luckily, recent insights in phage taxonomy facilitate the classification of phages in a comprehensive and data-driven manner as recently proposed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. In this research, we present the taxonomical classification of a novel, narrow host range Xanthomonas phage FoX4, isolated from a Brussels sprouts field in Belgium infested with Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. The phage has a limited ability to lyse a bacterial culture, yet adsorbs efficiently to its host. Based on its genome sequence and low similarity to previously described phages, the phage comprises the novel phage genus Foxquatrovirus.

Achievements, Developments and Future Challenges in the Field of Bioherbicides for Weed Control: A Global Review

The intrusion of weeds into fertile areas has resulted in significant global economic and environmental impacts on agricultural production systems and native ecosystems, hence without ongoing and repeated management actions, the maintenance or restoration of these systems will become increasingly challenging. The establishment of herbicide resistance in many species and unwanted pollution caused by synthetic herbicides has ushered in the need for alternative, eco-friendly sustainable management strategies, such as the use of bioherbicides. Of the array of bioherbicides currently available, the most successful products appear to be sourced from fungi (mycoherbicides), with at least 16 products being developed for commercial use globally. Over the last few decades, bioherbicides sourced from bacteria and plant extracts (such as allelochemicals and essential oils), together with viruses, have also shown marked success in controlling various weeds. Despite this encouraging trend, ongoing research is still required for these compounds to be economically viable and successful in the long term. It is apparent that more focused research is required for (i) the improvement of the commercialisation processes, including the cost-effectiveness and scale of production of these materials; (ii) the discovery of new production sources, such as bacteria, fungi, plants or viruses and (iii) the understanding of the environmental influence on the efficacy of these compounds, such as atmospheric CO₂, humidity, soil water stress, temperature and UV radiation.

Isolation of Novel Xanthomonas Phages Infecting the Plant Pathogens X. translucens and X. campestris

The genus of Xanthomonas contains many well-known plant pathogens with the ability to infect some of the most important crop plants, thereby causing significant economic damage. Unfortunately, classical pest-control strategies are neither particularly efficient nor sustainable and we are, therefore, in demand of alternatives. Here, we present the isolation and characterization of seven novel phages infecting the plant-pathogenic species Xanthomonas translucens and Xanthomonas campestris. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that all phages show a siphovirion morphology. The analysis of genome sequences and plaque morphologies are in agreement with a lytic lifestyle of the phages making them suitable candidates for biocontrol. Moreover, three of the isolated phages form the new genus "Shirevirus". All seven phages belong to four distinct clusters underpinning their phylogenetic diversity. Altogether, this study presents the first characterized isolates for the plant pathogen X. translucens and expands the number of available phages for plant biocontrol.

Potential Solutions Using Bacteriophages against Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria

Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically infect a bacterial host. They play a great role in the modern biotechnology and antibiotic-resistant microbe era. Since the discovery of phages, their application as a control agent has faced challenges that made antibiotics a better fit for combating pathogenic bacteria. Recently, with the novel sequencing technologies providing new insight into the nature of bacteriophages, their application has a second chance to be used. However, novel challenges need to be addressed to provide proper strategies for their practical application. This review focuses on addressing these challenges by initially introducing the nature of bacteriophages and describing the phage-host-dependent strategies for phage application. We also describe the effect of the long-term application of phages in natural environments and other bacterial communities. Overall, this review gathered crucial information for the future application of phages. We predict the use of phages will not be the only control strategy against pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, more studies must be done for low-risk control methods against antimicrobial-resistant bacteria.

Caulerpin Mitigates Helicobacter pylori-Induced Inflammation via Formyl Peptide Receptors

The identification of novel strategies to control Helicobacter pylori (Hp)-associated chronic inflammation is, at present, a considerable challenge. Here, we attempt to combat this issue by modulating the innate immune response, targeting formyl peptide receptors (FPRs), G-protein coupled receptors that play key roles in both the regulation and the resolution of the innate inflammatory response. Specifically, we investigated, in vitro, whether Caulerpin—a bis-indole alkaloid isolated from algae of the genus Caulerpa—could act as a molecular antagonist scaffold of FPRs. We showed that Caulerpin significantly reduces the immune response against Hp culture filtrate, by reverting the FPR2-related signaling cascade and thus counteracting the inflammatory reaction triggered by Hp peptide Hp(2–20). Our study suggests Caulerpin to be a promising therapeutic or adjuvant agent for the attenuation of inflammation triggered by Hp infection, as well as its related adverse clinical outcomes.

Phages in Food Industry Biocontrol and Bioremediation

Bacteriophages are ubiquitous in nature and their use is a current promising alternative in biological control. Multidrug resistant (MDR) bacterial strains are present in the livestock industry and phages are attractive candidates to eliminate them and their biofilms. This alternative therapy also reduces the non-desirable effects produced by chemicals on food. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 420,000 people die due to a foodborne illness annually, suggesting that an improvement in food biocontrol is desirable. This review summarizes relevant studies of phage use in biocontrol focusing on treatments in live animals, plants, surfaces, foods, wastewaters and bioremediation.

Phages in Food Industry Biocontrol and Bioremediation

Bacteriophages are ubiquitous in nature and their use is a current promising alternative in biological control. Multidrug resistant (MDR) bacterial strains are present in the livestock industry and phages are attractive candidates to eliminate them and their biofilms. This alternative therapy also reduces the non-desirable effects produced by chemicals on food. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 420,000 people die due to a foodborne illness annually, suggesting that an improvement in food biocontrol is desirable. This review summarizes relevant studies of phage use in biocontrol focusing on treatments in live animals, plants, surfaces, foods, wastewaters and bioremediation.

Bacteriophage-Mediated Control of Phytopathogenic Xanthomonads: A Promising Green Solution for the Future

Xanthomonads, members of the family Xanthomonadaceae, are economically important plant pathogenic bacteria responsible for infections of over 400 plant species. Bacteriophage-based biopesticides can provide an environmentally friendly, effective solution to control these bacteria. Bacteriophage-based biocontrol has important advantages over chemical pesticides, and treatment with these biopesticides is a minor intervention into the microflora. However, bacteriophages’ agricultural application has limitations rooted in these viruses’ biological properties as active substances. These disadvantageous features, together with the complicated registration process of bacteriophage-based biopesticides, means that there are few products available on the market. This review summarizes our knowledge of the Xanthomonas-host plant and bacteriophage-host bacterium interaction’s possible influence on bacteriophage-based biocontrol strategies and provides examples of greenhouse and field trials and products readily available in the EU and the USA. It also details the most important advantages and limitations of the agricultural application of bacteriophages. This paper also investigates the legal background and industrial property right issues of bacteriophage-based biopesticides. When appropriately applied, bacteriophages can provide a promising tool against xanthomonads, a possibility that is untapped. Information presented in this review aims to explore the potential of bacteriophage-based biopesticides in the control of xanthomonads in the future.

The Union Is Strength: The Synergic Action of Long Fatty Acids and a Bacteriophage against Xanthomonas campestris Biofilm

Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris is known as the causative agent of black rot disease, which attacks mainly crucifers, severely lowering their global productivity. One of the main virulence factors of this pathogen is its capability to penetrate and form biofilm structures in the xylem vessels. The discovery of novel approaches to crop disease management is urgent and a possible treatment could be aimed at the eradication of biofilm, although anti-biofilm approaches in agricultural microbiology are still rare. Considering the multifactorial nature of biofilm, an effective approach against Xanthomonas campestris implies the use of a multi-targeted or combinatorial strategy. In this paper, an anti-biofilm strategy based on the use of fatty acids and the bacteriophage (Xccφ1)-hydroxyapatite complex was optimized against Xanthomonas campestris mature biofilm. The synergic action of these elements was demonstrated and the efficient removal of Xanthomonas campestris mature biofilm was also proven in a flow cell system, making the proposed approach an effective solution to enhance plant survival in Xanthomonas campestris infections. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the efficacy of the proposed treatment were explored.

An In Vitro Model to Investigate the Role of Helicobacter pylori in Type 2 Diabetes, Obesity, Alzheimer's Disease and Cardiometabolic Disease

Helicobacter pylori (Hp) is a Gram-negative bacterium colonizing the human stomach. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis of intracellular human gastric carcinoma cells (MKN-28) incubated with the Hp cell filtrate (Hpcf) displays high levels of amino acids, including the branched chain amino acids (BCAA) isoleucine, leucine, and valine. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Array Technology shows upregulation of mammalian Target Of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1), inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The review of literature indicates that these traits are common to type 2 diabetes, obesity, Alzheimer’s diseases, and cardiometabolic disease. Here, we demonstrate how Hp may modulate these traits. Hp induces high levels of amino acids, which, in turn, activate mTORC1, which is the complex regulating the metabolism of the host. A high level of BCAA and upregulation of mTORC1 are, thus, directly regulated by Hp. Furthermore, Hp modulates inflammation, which is functional to the persistence of chronic infection and the asymptomatic state of the host. Finally, in order to induce autophagy and sustain bacterial colonization of gastric mucosa, the Hp toxin VacA localizes within mitochondria, causing fragmentation of these organelles, depletion of ATP, and oxidative stress. In conclusion, our in vitro disease model replicates the main traits common to the above four diseases and shows how Hp may potentially manipulate them.

Population Dynamics between Erwinia amylovora, Pantoea agglomerans and Bacteriophages: Exploiting Synergy and Competition to Improve Phage Cocktail Efficacy

Bacteriophages are viruses capable of recognizing with high specificity, propagating inside of, and destroying their bacterial hosts. The phage lytic life cycle makes phages attractive as tools to selectively kill pathogenic bacteria with minimal impact on the surrounding microbiome. To effectively harness the potential of phages in therapy, it is critical to understand the phage–host dynamics and how these interactions can change in complex populations. Our model examined the interactions between the plant pathogen Erwinia amylovora, the antagonistic epiphyte Pantoea agglomerans, and the bacteriophages that infect and kill both species. P. agglomerans strains are used as a phage carrier; their role is to deliver and propagate the bacteriophages on the plant surface prior to the arrival of the pathogen. Using liquid cultures, the populations of the pathogen, carrier, and phages were tracked over time with quantitative real-time PCR. The jumbo Myoviridae phage ϕEa35-70 synergized with both the Myoviridae ϕEa21-4 and Podoviridae ϕEa46-1-A1 and was most effective in combination at reducing E. amylovora growth over 24 h. Phage ϕEa35-70, however, also reduced the growth of P. agglomerans. Phage cocktails of ϕEa21-4, ϕEa46-1-A1, and ϕEa35-70 at multiplicities of infections (MOIs) of 10, 1, and 0.01, respectively, no longer inhibited growth of P. agglomerans. When this cocktail was grown with P. agglomerans for 8 h prior to pathogen introduction, pathogen growth was reduced by over four log units over 24 h. These findings present a novel approach to study complex phage–host dynamics that can be exploited to create more effective phage-based therapies.

An Innovative Approach to Control H. pylori-Induced Persistent Inflammation and Colonization

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram-negative bacterium which colonizes the human stomach. The ability of H. pylori to evade the host defense system and the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains result in bacteria persistence and chronic inflammation, which leads to both severe gastric and extra-gastric diseases. Consequently, innovative approaches able to overcome H. pylori clinical outcomes are needed. In this work, we develop a novel non-toxic therapy based on the synergistic action of H. pylori phage and lactoferrin adsorbed on hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, which effectively impairs bacteria colonization and minimizes the damage of the host pro-inflammatory response.

Antibiofilm Activity of a Trichoderma Metabolite against Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, Alone and in Association with a Phage

Biofilm protects bacteria against the host’s immune system and adverse environmental conditions. Several studies highlight the efficacy of lytic phages in the prevention and eradication of bacterial biofilms. In this study, the lytic activity of Xccφ1 (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris-specific phage) was evaluated in combination with 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (a secondary metabolite produced by Trichoderma atroviride P1) and the mineral hydroxyapatite. Then, the antibiofilm activity of this interaction, called a φHA6PP complex, was investigated using confocal laser microscopy under static and dynamic conditions. Additionally, the mechanism used by the complex to modulate the genes (rpf, gumB, clp and manA) involved in the biofilm formation and stability was also studied. Our results demonstrated that Xccφ1, alone or in combination with 6PP and HA, interfered with the gene pathways involved in the formation of biofilm. This approach can be used as a model for other biofilm-producing bacteria.