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Lee CY, Lee SY. Contribution of Aerobic Cellulolytic Gut Bacteria to Cellulose Digestion in Fifteen Coastal Grapsoid Crabs Underpins Potential for Mineralization of Mangrove Production. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:224. [PMID: 38874676 PMCID: PMC11178586 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03718-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Grapsoid crabs (Decapoda: Grapsoidea) inhabiting along the land-sea transition provided various amounts and quality of vascular plant carbon (e.g., fresh mangrove leaf, leaf litter, and mangrove-derived organic carbon) and perform differing levels of herbivory. Other than endogenous cellulase, symbiotic cellulolytic bacteria could also contribute to the crabs' vascular plant carbon assimilation and mineralization. In this study, we isolated culturable cellulolytic bacteria from three gut regions (i.e., stomach, midgut, and hindgut) of 15 species of grapsoid crabs that inhabit in various coastal habitats (i.e., land margin, mangrove forest, tidal flat, and subtidal area). Bacillus, which was isolated from 11 out of the 15 grapsoid crabs, was the most common genus of culturable prominently cellulolytic bacteria among the target species. Seventy to ninety nine percent of culturable cellulolytic bacteria were removed, and the endoglucanase activity of five species was significantly reduced by 14.4-27.7% after antibiotic treatment. These results suggest that cellulolytic bacteria play a role in assisting mangrove carbon utilization in coastal grapsoid crabs, especially those inhabiting mangrove, mudflat, and subtidal areas. The significantly higher abundance of cellulolytic bacteria and the generally higher hydrolytic capacity of the bacteria in mangrove crab species suggest that they receive more contribution from symbionts for mangrove carbon utilization, while semi-terrestrial crabs seem to depend little on symbiotic cellulase due to the lower abundances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheuk Yan Lee
- Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shing Yip Lee
- Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Yang X, Garuglieri E, Van Goethem MW, Marasco R, Fusi M, Daffonchio D. Mangrovimonas cancribranchiae sp. nov., a novel bacterial species associated with the gills of the fiddler crab Cranuca inversa (Brachyura, Ocypodidae) from Red Sea mangroves. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2024; 74. [PMID: 38865172 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.006415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Two bacteria, UG2_1T and UG2_2, were isolated from the gill tissues of the mangrove fiddler crab Cranuca inversa collected on the east coast of the Red Sea (Thuwal, Saudi Arabia). The cells are Gram-negative, rod-shaped, orange-pigmented, motile by gliding with no flagella, strictly aerobic, and grow at 20-37 °C (optimum, 28-35 °C), at pH 5.0-9.0 (optimum, pH 6.0-7.0), and with 1-11 % (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 2-4 %). They were positive for oxidase and catalase activity. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that isolates UG2_1T and UG2_2 belong to the genus Mangrovimonas, showing the highest similarity to Mangrovimonas spongiae HN-E26T (99.4 %). Phylogenomic analysis based on the whole genomes, independently using 49 and 120 concatenated genes, showed that strains UG2_1T and UG2_2 formed a monophyletic lineage in a different cluster from other type strain species within the genus Mangrovimonas. The genome sizes were 3.08 and 3.07 Mbp for UG2_1T and UG2_2, respectively, with a G+C content of 33.8 mol% for both strains. Values of average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization between the strains and closely related species were 91.0 and 43.5 %, respectively. Chemotaxonomic analysis indicated that both strains had iso-C15 : 0 and iso-C15 : 1 G as dominant fatty acids, and the primary respiratory quinone was identified as MK-6. The major polar lipids comprised phosphatidylethanolamine, one unidentified glycolipid, one unidentified phospholipid, two unidentified aminolipids, and four unidentified lipids. Based on phylogenetic, phylogenomic, genome relatedness, phenotypic, and chemotaxonomical data, the two isolates represent a novel species within the genus Mangrovimonas, with the proposed name Mangrovimonas cancribranchiae sp. nov., and the type strain UG2_1T (=KCTC 102158T=DSM 117025T).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyuan Yang
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Elisa Garuglieri
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marc W Van Goethem
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ramona Marasco
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marco Fusi
- Dove Marine Laboratory, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Daniele Daffonchio
- Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
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Tsang CTT, Hui TKL, Chung NM, Yuen WT, Tsang LM. Comparative analysis of gut microbiome of mangrove brachyuran crabs revealed patterns of phylosymbiosis and codiversification. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17377. [PMID: 38713089 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
The acquisition of microbial symbionts enables animals to rapidly adapt to and exploit novel ecological niches, thus significantly enhancing the evolutionary fitness and success of their hosts. However, the dynamics of host-microbe interactions and their evolutionary implications remain largely underexplored in marine invertebrates. Crabs of the family Sesarmidae (Crustacea: Brachyura) are dominant inhabitants of mangrove forests and are considered keystone species there. Their rapid diversification, particularly after adopting a plant-feeding lifestyle, is believed to have been facilitated by symbiotic gut microbes, enabling successful colonization of intertidal and terrestrial environments. To investigate the patterns and mechanisms shaping the microbial communities and the role of microbes in the evolution of Sesarmidae, we characterized and compared the gut microbiome compositions across 43 crab species from Sesarmidae and other mangrove-associated families using 16S metabarcoding. We found that the gut microbiome assemblages in crabs are primarily determined by host identity, with a secondary influence from environmental factors such as microhabitat and sampling location, and to a lesser extent influenced by biological factors such as sex and gut region. While patterns of phylosymbiosis (i.e. when microbial community relationships recapitulate the phylogeny of their hosts) were consistently observed in all beta-diversity metrics analysed, the strength of phylosymbiosis varied across crab families. This suggests that the bacterial assemblages in each family were differentially shaped by different degrees of host filtering and/or other evolutionary processes. Notably, Sesarmidae displayed signals of cophylogeny with its core gut bacterial genera, which likely play crucial functional roles in their hosts by providing lignocellulolytic enzymes, essential amino acids, and fatty acids supplementation. Our results support the hypothesis of microbial contribution to herbivory and terrestrialization in mangrove crabs, highlighting the tight association and codiversification of the crab holobiont.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandlar Tsz To Tsang
- Simon F. S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tom Kwok Lun Hui
- Simon F. S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Nga Man Chung
- Simon F. S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Wing Tan Yuen
- Simon F. S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ling Ming Tsang
- Simon F. S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Bacci G, Meriggi N, Cheng CLY, Ng KH, Iannucci A, Mengoni A, Cavalieri D, Cannicci S, Fratini S. Species-specific gill's microbiome of eight crab species with different breathing adaptations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21033. [PMID: 38030652 PMCID: PMC10687215 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48308-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Transitions to physically different environments, such as the water-to-land transition, proved to be the main drivers of relevant evolutionary events. Brachyuran crabs evolved remarkable morphological, behavioral, and physiological adaptations to terrestrial life. Terrestrial species evolved new respiratory structures devoted to replace or support the gills, a multifunctional organ devoted to gas exchanges, ion-regulation and nitrogen excretion. It was hypothesized that microorganisms associated with respiratory apparatus could have facilitated the processes of osmoregulation, respiration, and elimination of metabolites along this evolutionary transition. To test if crab species with different breathing adaptations may host similar microbial communities on their gills, we performed a comparative targeted-metagenomic analysis, selecting two marine and six terrestrial crabs belonging to different families and characterised by different breathing adaptations. We analysed anterior and posterior gills separately according to their different and specific roles. Regardless of their terrestrial or marine adaptations, microbial assemblages were strongly species-specific indicating a non-random association between the host and its microbiome. Significant differences were found in only two terrestrial species when considering posterior vs. anterior gills, without any association with species-specific respiratory adaptations. Our results suggest that all the selected species are strongly adapted to the ecological niche and specific micro-habitat they colonise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Bacci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Niccolò Meriggi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Christine L Y Cheng
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Ka Hei Ng
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Alessio Iannucci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133, Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessio Mengoni
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133, Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefano Cannicci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China.
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Sara Fratini
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, 90133, Palermo, Italy
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Bacci G, Fratini S, Meriggi N, Cheng CLY, Ng KH, Pindo M, Iannucci A, Mengoni A, Cavalieri D, Cannicci S. Conserved organ-specific microbial assemblages in different populations of a terrestrial crab. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1113617. [PMID: 37378290 PMCID: PMC10291174 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1113617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are ubiquitous in the environment and provide genetic and physiological functions to multicellular organisms. Knowledge on the associated microbiota is becoming highly relevant to understand the host's ecology and biology. Among invertebrates, many examples of endosymbiosis have been described, such as those in corals, ants, and termites. At present, however, little is known on the presence, diversity, and putative roles of the microbiota associated to brachyuran crabs in relation to their environment. In this work we investigated the associated microbiota of three populations of the terrestrial brachyuran crab Chiromantes haematocheir to find evidence of a conserved organ-specific microbiome unrelated to the population of origin and dissimilar from environmental microbial assemblages. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene and fungal ITS sequences were obtained from selected crab organs and environmental matrices to profile microbial communities. Despite the presence of truly marine larval stages and the absence of a gregarious behaviour, favouring microbiota exchanges, we found common, organ-specific microbiota, associated with the gut and the gills of crabs from the different populations (with more than 15% of the genera detected specifically enriched only in one organ). These findings suggest the presence of possible functional roles of the organ-specific microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Bacci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Sara Fratini
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | - Niccolò Meriggi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | | | - Ka Hei Ng
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | - Massimo Pindo
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Alessio Iannucci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessio Mengoni
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefano Cannicci
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
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Shimwell C, Atkinson L, Graham MR, Murdoch B. A first molecular characterization of the scorpion telson microbiota of Hadrurus arizonensis and Smeringurus mesaensis. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0277303. [PMID: 36649362 PMCID: PMC9844838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Scorpions represent an ancient lineage of arachnids that have radiated across the globe and are incredibly resilient-since some thrive in harsh environments and can exist on minimal and intermittent feedings. Given the emerging importance of microbiomes to an organism's health, it is intriguing to suggest that the long-term success of the scorpion bauplan may be linked to the microbiome. Little is known about scorpion microbiomes, and what is known, concentrates on the gut. The microbiome is not limited to the gut, rather it can be found within tissues, fluids and on external surfaces. We tested whether the scorpion telson, the venom-producing organ, of two species, Smeringurus mesaensis and Hadrurus arizonensis, contain bacteria. We isolated telson DNA from each species, amplified bacterial 16S rRNA genes, and identified the collection of bacteria present within each scorpion species. Our results show for the first time that telsons of non-buthid scorpion species do indeed contain bacteria. Interestingly, each scorpion species has a phylogenetically unique telson microbiome including Mollicutes symbionts. This study may change how we view scorpion biology and their venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Shimwell
- Department of Biology, Eastern Connecticut State University, Willimantic, CT, United States of America
| | - Lauren Atkinson
- Department of Biology, Eastern Connecticut State University, Willimantic, CT, United States of America
| | - Matthew R. Graham
- Department of Biology, Eastern Connecticut State University, Willimantic, CT, United States of America
| | - Barbara Murdoch
- Department of Biology, Eastern Connecticut State University, Willimantic, CT, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Iannucci A, Saha A, Cannicci S, Bellucci A, Cheng CLY, Ng KH, Fratini S. Ecological, physiological and life-history traits correlate with genome sizes in decapod crustaceans. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.930888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Crustaceans are characterized by some of the most variable genome sizes among animals. Significant relationships between genome size and specific eco-physiological and morphological features have been described in many crustacean taxa, such as Amphipoda, Ostracoda, Cladocera, and Copepoda. A consistent pattern of genome size variation is yet to be found, however, in one of the most specious order of crustaceans, the Decapoda. We investigated how genome size is related to selected eco-physiological and life-history traits in species belonging to this order. We analyzed the respiratory, excretory, and developmental adaptations of 179 decapod species inhabiting shallow marine, deep marine, freshwater, intertidal, and terrestrial habitats. Our results show that the genome size is significantly larger in decapods that have a direct development. Moreover, in Anomura, Astacidea, and Brachyura we found larger genome sizes in species (i) living in freshwater habitats, (ii) using gills as a strictly water-breathing organs, and (iii) presenting a direct development. While species that (i) live in shallow waters, and intertidal and terrestrial habitats, (ii) have some degrees of air-breathing adaptations, namely gills that can exchange oxygen with air if wet or branchiostegal lungs, and (iii) possess an indirect or extended development are characterized by significantly smaller genomes. Our analyses show that developmental complexity affects genome size in decapods, and that multiple eco-physiological and life-history traits correlate with genome size in Anomura, Astacidea, and Brachyura.
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Garuglieri E, Booth JM, Fusi M, Yang X, Marasco R, Mbobo T, Clementi E, Sacchi L, Daffonchio D. Morphological characteristics and abundance of prokaryotes associated with gills in mangrove brachyuran crabs living along a tidal gradient. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266977. [PMID: 35421185 PMCID: PMC9009686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the chemico-physical differences between air and water, the transition from aquatic life to the land poses several challenges for animal evolution, necessitating morphological, physiological and behavioural adaptations. Microbial symbiosis is known to have played an important role in eukaryote evolution, favouring host adaptation under changing environmental conditions. We selected mangrove brachyuran crabs as a model group to investigate the prokaryotes associated with the gill of crabs dwelling at different tidal levels (subtidal, intertidal and supratidal). In these animals, the gill undergoes a high selective pressure, finely regulating multiple physiological functions during both animal submersion under and emersion from the periodical tidal events. We hypothesize that similarly to other marine animals, the gills of tidal crabs are consistently colonized by prokaryotes that may quantitatively change along the environmental gradient driven by the tides. Using electron microscopy techniques, we found a thick layer of prokaryotes over the gill surfaces of all of 12 crab species from the mangrove forests of Saudi Arabia, Kenya and South Africa. We consistently observed two distinct morphotypes (rod- and spherical-shaped), positioned horizontally and/or perpendicularly to the gill surface. The presence of replicating cells indicated that the prokaryote layer is actively growing on the gill surface. Quantitative analysis of scanning electron microscopy images and the quantification of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene by qPCR revealed a higher specific abundance of prokaryote cells per gill surface area in the subtidal species than those living in the supratidal zone. Our results revealed a correlation between prokaryote colonization of the gill surfaces and the host lifestyle. This finding indicates a possible role of prokaryote partnership within the crab gills, with potential effects on animal adaptation to different levels of the intertidal gradient present in the mangrove ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Garuglieri
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jenny Marie Booth
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marco Fusi
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
- Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, United Kingdom
| | - Xinyuan Yang
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ramona Marasco
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tumeka Mbobo
- National Research Foundation-South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity Institute, Makhanda, South Africa
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Cape Town, South Africa
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Emanuela Clementi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Luciano Sacchi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "L. Spallanzani", Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Daniele Daffonchio
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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Wale M, Daffonchio D, Fusi M, Marasco R, Garuglieri E, Diele K. The Importance of Larval Stages for Considering Crab Microbiomes as a Paradigm for the Evolution of Terrestrialization. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:770245. [PMID: 34721372 PMCID: PMC8555880 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.770245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Wale
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Daniele Daffonchio
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marco Fusi
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ramona Marasco
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Elisa Garuglieri
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Karen Diele
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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