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Xue Y, Li W, Li M, Ru N, Chen S, Jiu M, Feng H, Wei L, Daly P, Zhou D. Biological Control of a Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita Infection of Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) by the Oomycete Biocontrol Agent Pythium oligandrum. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:265. [PMID: 38667936 PMCID: PMC11051105 DOI: 10.3390/jof10040265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The biocontrol agent Pythium oligandrum, which is a member of the phylum Oomycota, can control diseases caused by a taxonomically wide range of plant pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and oomycetes. However, whether P. oligandrum could control diseases caused by plant root-knot nematodes (RKNs) was unknown. We investigated a recently isolated P. oligandrum strain GAQ1, and the P. oligandrum strain CBS530.74, for the control of an RKN Meloidogyne incognita infection of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Initially, P. oligandrum culture filtrates were found to be lethal to M. incognita second-stage juveniles (J2s) with up to 84% mortality 24 h after treatment compared to 14% in the control group. Consistent with the lethality to M. incognita J2s, tomato roots treated with P. oligandrum culture filtrates reduced their attraction of nematodes, and the number of nematodes penetrating the roots was reduced by up to 78%. In a greenhouse pot trial, the P. oligandrum GAQ1 inoculation of tomato plants significantly reduced the gall number by 58% in plants infected with M. incognita. Notably, the P. oligandrum GAQ1 mycelial treatment significantly increased tomato plant height (by 36%), weight (by 27%), and root weight (by 48%). A transcriptome analysis of tomato seedling roots inoculated with the P. oligandrum GAQ1 strain identified ~2500 differentially expressed genes. The enriched GO terms and annotations in the up-regulated genes suggested a modulation of the plant hormone-signaling and defense-related pathways in response to P. oligandrum. In conclusion, our results support that P. oligandrum GAQ1 can serve as a potential biocontrol agent for M. incognita control in tomato. Multiple mechanisms appear to contribute to the biocontrol effect, including the direct inhibition of M. incognita, the potential priming of tomato plant defenses, and plant growth promotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Xue
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (Y.X.); (W.L.)
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
| | - Weishan Li
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (Y.X.); (W.L.)
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Mengnan Li
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
- College of Landscape and Ecological Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan 471023, China
| | - Ningchen Ru
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
- School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Siqiao Chen
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Min Jiu
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (Y.X.); (W.L.)
| | - Hui Feng
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
| | - Lihui Wei
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
- School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Paul Daly
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
| | - Dongmei Zhou
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; (M.L.); (N.R.); (S.C.); (H.F.); (L.W.)
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Sheikh TMM, Zhou D, Ali H, Hussain S, Wang N, Chen S, Zhao Y, Wen X, Wang X, Zhang J, Wang L, Deng S, Feng H, Raza W, Fu P, Peng H, Wei L, Daly P. Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by the Biocontrol Agent Pythium oligandrum Contribute to Ginger Plant Growth and Disease Resistance. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0151023. [PMID: 37534988 PMCID: PMC10433877 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01510-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The oomycete Pythium oligandrum is a potential biocontrol agent to control a wide range of fungal and oomycete-caused diseases, such as Pythium myriotylum-caused rhizome rot in ginger, leading to reduced yields and compromised quality. Previously, P. oligandrum has been studied for its plant growth-promoting potential by auxin production and induction of disease resistance by elicitors such as oligandrin. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play beneficial roles in sustainable agriculture by enhancing plant growth and resistance. We investigated the contribution of P. oligandrum-produced VOCs on plant growth and disease suppression by initially using Nicotiana benthamiana plants for screening. P. oligandrum VOCs significantly enhanced tobacco seedling and plant biomass contents. Screening of the individual VOCs showed that 3-octanone and hexadecane promoted the growth of tobacco seedlings. The total VOCs from P. oligandrum also enhanced the shoot and root growth of ginger plants. Transcriptomic analysis showed a higher expression of genes related to plant growth hormones and stress responses in the leaves of ginger plants exposed to P. oligandrum VOCs. The concentrations of plant growth hormones such as auxin, zeatin, and gibberellic acid were higher in the leaves of ginger plants exposed to P. oligandrum VOCs. In a ginger disease biocontrol assay, the VOC-exposed ginger plants infected with P. myriotylum had lower levels of disease severity. We conclude that this study contributes to understanding the growth-promoting mechanisms of P. oligandrum on ginger and tobacco, priming of ginger plants against various stresses, and the mechanisms of action of P. oligandrum as a biocontrol agent. IMPORTANCE Plant growth promotion plays a vital role in enhancing production of agricultural crops, and Pythium oligandrum is known for its plant growth-promoting potential through production of auxins and induction of resistance by elicitors. This study highlights the significance of P. oligandrum-produced VOCs in plant growth promotion and disease resistance. Transcriptomic analyses of leaves of ginger plants exposed to P. oligandrum VOCs revealed the upregulation of genes involved in plant growth hormone signaling and stress responses. Moreover, the concentration of growth hormones significantly increased in P. oligandrum VOC-exposed ginger plants. Additionally, the disease severity was reduced in P. myriotylum-infected ginger plants exposed to P. oligandrum VOCs. In ginger, P. myriotylum-caused rhizome rot disease results in severe losses, and biocontrol has a role as part of an integrated pest management strategy for rhizome rot disease. Overall, growth enhancement and disease reduction in plants exposed to P. oligandrum-produced VOCs contribute to its role as a biocontrol agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taha Majid Mahmood Sheikh
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongmei Zhou
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Haider Ali
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Sarfraz Hussain
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Nan Wang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Siqiao Chen
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Organic Solid Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yishen Zhao
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan, China
| | - Xian Wen
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Jinfeng Zhang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Lunji Wang
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan, China
| | - Sheng Deng
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Hui Feng
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Waseem Raza
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab for Organic Solid Waste Utilization, National Engineering Research Center for Organic-based Fertilizers, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Solid Organic Waste Resource Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Pengxiao Fu
- Jiangsu Coastal Ecological Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Peng
- Jiangsu Coastal Ecological Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China
| | - Lihui Wei
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Paul Daly
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
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Volatile Organic Compounds from Pythium oligandrum Play a Role in Its Parasitism on Plant-Pathogenic Pythium myriotylum. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0203622. [PMID: 36744963 PMCID: PMC9973004 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02036-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The oomycete Pythium oligandrum is a soil-inhabiting parasite and predator of both fungi and oomycetes, and uses hydrolytic enzymes extensively to penetrate and hydrolyze its host or prey. Other mechanisms have been studied less, and we investigated the contribution of P. oligandrum-produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to parasitism. The growth-inhibiting activity of P. oligandrum VOCs was tested on Pythium myriotylum-a host or prey of P. oligandrum-coupled with electron microscopy, and biochemical and transcriptomic analyses. The P. oligandrum-produced VOCs reduced P. myriotylum growth by 80% and zoospore levels by 60%. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) identified 23 VOCs, and methyl heptenone, d-limonene, 2-undecanone, and 1-octanal were potent inhibitors of P. myriotylum growth and led to increased production of reactive oxygen species at a concentration that did not inhibit P. oligandrum growth. Exposure to the P. oligandrum VOCs led to shrinkage of P. myriotylum hyphae and lysis of the cellular membranes and organelles. Transcriptomics of P. myriotylum exposed to the P. oligandrum VOCs at increasing levels of growth inhibition initially showed a strong upregulation of putative detoxification-related genes that was not maintained later. The inhibition of P. myriotylum growth continued immediately after the exposure to the VOCs was discontinued and led to the reduced infection of its plant hosts. The VOCs produced by P. oligandrum could be another factor alongside hydrolytic enzymes contributing to its ecological role as a microbial parasite in particular ecological niches such as in soil, and may also contribute to the biocontrol of diseases using P. oligandrum commercial preparations. IMPORTANCE Microbe-microbe interactions in nature are multifaceted, with multiple mechanisms of action, and are crucial to how plants interact with microbes. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have diverse functions, including contributing to parasitism in ecological interactions and potential applications in biocontrol. The microbial parasite P. oligandrum is well known for using hydrolytic enzymes as part of its parasitism. We found that P. oligandrum VOCs reduced the growth of, and caused major damage to, the hyphae of P. myriotylum (a host or prey of P. oligandrum). Transcriptomic analyses of P. myriotylum exposed to the VOCs revealed the upregulation of genes potentially involved in an attempt to detoxify the VOCs. The inhibitory effects of the VOCs had a knock-on effect by reducing the virulence of P. myriotylum toward its plant hosts. The P. oligandrum VOCs could contribute to its ecological role as a microbial parasite. The VOCs analyzed here may also contribute to the biocontrol of diseases using P. oligandrum commercial preparations.
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Daly P, Zhou D, Shen D, Chen Y, Xue T, Chen S, Zhang Q, Zhang J, McGowan J, Cai F, Pang G, Wang N, Sheikh TMM, Deng S, Li J, Soykam HO, Kara I, Fitzpatrick DA, Druzhinina IS, Bayram Akcapinar G, Wei L. Genome of Pythium myriotylum Uncovers an Extensive Arsenal of Virulence-Related Genes among the Broad-Host-Range Necrotrophic Pythium Plant Pathogens. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0226821. [PMID: 35946960 PMCID: PMC9430622 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02268-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Pythium (Peronosporales, Oomycota) genus includes devastating plant pathogens that cause widespread diseases and severe crop losses. Here, we have uncovered a far greater arsenal of virulence factor-related genes in the necrotrophic Pythium myriotylum than in other Pythium plant pathogens. The genome of a plant-virulent P. myriotylum strain (~70 Mb and 19,878 genes) isolated from a diseased rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale) encodes the largest repertoire of putative effectors, proteases, and plant cell wall-degrading enzymes (PCWDEs) among the studied species. P. myriotylum has twice as many predicted secreted proteins than any other Pythium plant pathogen. Arrays of tandem duplications appear to be a key factor of the enrichment of the virulence factor-related genes in P. myriotylum. The transcriptomic analysis performed on two P. myriotylum isolates infecting ginger leaves showed that proteases were a major part of the upregulated genes along with PCWDEs, Nep1-like proteins (NLPs), and elicitin-like proteins. A subset of P. myriotylum NLPs were analyzed and found to have necrosis-inducing ability from agroinfiltration of tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves. One of the heterologously produced infection-upregulated putative cutinases found in a tandem array showed esterase activity with preferences for longer-chain-length substrates and neutral to alkaline pH levels. Our results allow the development of science-based targets for the management of P. myriotylum-caused disease, as insights from the genome and transcriptome show that gene expansion of virulence factor-related genes play a bigger role in the plant parasitism of Pythium spp. than previously thought. IMPORTANCE Pythium species are oomycetes, an evolutionarily distinct group of filamentous fungus-like stramenopiles. The Pythium genus includes several pathogens of important crop species, e.g., the spice ginger. Analysis of our genome from the plant pathogen Pythium myriotylum uncovered a far larger arsenal of virulence factor-related genes than found in other Pythium plant pathogens, and these genes contribute to the infection of the plant host. The increase in the number of virulence factor-related genes appears to have occurred through the mechanism of tandem gene duplication events. Genes from particular virulence factor-related categories that were increased in number and switched on during infection of ginger leaves had their activities tested. These genes have toxic activities toward plant cells or activities to hydrolyze polymeric components of the plant. The research suggests targets to better manage diseases caused by P. myriotylum and prompts renewed attention to the genomics of Pythium plant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Daly
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongmei Zhou
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Danyu Shen
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yifan Chen
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Taiqiang Xue
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Siqiao Chen
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Organic Solid Waste Utilization, Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qimeng Zhang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Jinfeng Zhang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Jamie McGowan
- Genome Evolution Laboratory, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
| | - Feng Cai
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Organic Solid Waste Utilization, Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Guan Pang
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Organic Solid Waste Utilization, Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Nan Wang
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Taha Majid Mahmood Sheikh
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Sheng Deng
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Hüseyin Okan Soykam
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Sciences, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Irem Kara
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Sciences, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Irina S. Druzhinina
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Organic Solid Waste Utilization, Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Accelerated Taxonomy, The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, London, United Kingdom
| | - Günseli Bayram Akcapinar
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Institute of Health Sciences, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Lihui Wei
- Key Lab of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province—State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
- School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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Chen S, Daly P, Zhou D, Li J, Wang X, Deng S, Feng H, Wang C, Sheikh TMM, Chen Y, Xue T, Cai F, Kubicek CP, Wei L, Druzhinina IS. The use of mutant and engineered microbial agents for biological control of plant diseases caused by Pythium: Achievements versus challenges. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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