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Basrani ST, Kadam NS, Yadav DV, Patil SB, Mohan Karuppayil S, Jadhav AK. Antifungal Activity of Mefloquine Against Candida albicans Growth and Virulence Factors: Insights Into Mode of Action. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:213. [PMID: 38847863 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03739-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The antimalarial drug Mefloquine has demonstrated antifungal activity against growth and virulence factors of Candida albicans. The current study focused on the identification of Mefloquine's mode of action in C. albicans by performing cell susceptibility assay, biofilm assay, live and dead assay, propidium iodide uptake assay, ergosterol quantification assay, cell cycle study, and gene expression studies by RT-PCR. Mefloquine inhibited the virulence factors in C. albicans, such as germ tube formation and biofilm formation at 0.125 and 1 mg/ml, respectively. Mefloquine-treated cells showed a decrease in the quantity of ergosterol content of cell membrane in a concentration-dependent manner. Mefloquine (0.25 mg/ml) arrested C. albicans cells at the G2/M phase and S phase of the cell cycle thereby preventing the progression of the normal yeast cell cycle. ROS level was measured to find out oxidative stress in C. albicans in the presence of mefloquine. The study revealed that, mefloquine was found to enhance the ROS level and subsequently oxidative stress. Gene expression studies revealed that mefloquine treatment upregulates the expressions of SOD1, SOD2, and CAT1 genes in C. albicans. In vivo, the antifungal efficacy of mefloquine was confirmed in mice for systemic candidiasis and it was found that there was a decrease in the pathogenesis of C. albicans after the treatment of mefloquine in mice. In conclusion, mefloquine can be used as a repurposed drug as an alternative drug against Candidiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sargun T Basrani
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine & Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to Be University), Kasaba Bawada, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416006, India
| | - Nandakumar S Kadam
- iSERA Biological Pvt Ltd. MIDC Shirala, Sangli, Maharashtra, 415408, India
| | | | - Shivani B Patil
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine & Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to Be University), Kasaba Bawada, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416006, India
| | - S Mohan Karuppayil
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine & Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to Be University), Kasaba Bawada, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416006, India.
| | - Ashwini K Jadhav
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine & Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to Be University), Kasaba Bawada, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416006, India.
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Wu X, Ibrahim N, Liang Y, Liu X. Screening and Genomic Analysis of Alkaloid-Producing Endophytic Fungus Fusarium solani Strain MC503 from Macleaya cordata. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1088. [PMID: 38930470 PMCID: PMC11206080 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12061088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The extensive harvesting of Macleaya cordata, as a biomedicinal plant and a wild source of quaternary benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloids, has led to a rapid decline in its population. An alternative approach to the production of these bioactive compounds, which are known for their diverse pharmacological effects, is needed. Production of these compounds using alkaloid-producing endophytic fungi is a promising potential approach. In this research, we isolated an alkaloid-producing endophytic fungus, strain MC503, from the roots of Macleaya cordata. Genomic analysis was conducted to elucidate its metabolic pathways and identify the potential genes responsible for alkaloid biosynthesis. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses revealed the presence and quantified the content of sanguinarine (536.87 μg/L) and chelerythrine (393.31 μg/L) in the fungal fermentation extract. Based on our analysis of the morphological and micromorphological characteristics and the ITS region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA of the alkaloid-producing endophyte, it was identified as Fusarium solani strain MC503. To the best of our knowledge, there is no existing report on Fusarium solani from Macleaya cordata or other medicinal plants that produce sanguinarine and chelerythrine simultaneously. These findings provide valuable insights into the capability of Fusarium solani to carry out isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis and lay the foundation for further exploration of its potential applications in pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yili Liang
- Key Laboratory of Biometallurgy of Ministry of Education, School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China; (X.W.); (N.I.)
| | - Xueduan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biometallurgy of Ministry of Education, School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China; (X.W.); (N.I.)
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Basrani ST, Gavandi TC, Patil SB, Kadam NS, Yadav DV, Chougule SA, Karuppayil SM, Jadhav AK. Hydroxychloroquine an Antimalarial Drug, Exhibits Potent Antifungal Efficacy Against Candida albicans Through Multitargeting. J Microbiol 2024; 62:381-391. [PMID: 38587590 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-024-00111-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Candida albicans is the primary etiological agent associated with candidiasis in humans. Unrestricted growth of C. albicans can progress to systemic infections in the worst situation. This study investigates the antifungal activity of Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and mode of action against C. albicans. HCQ inhibited the planktonic growth and yeast to hyphal form morphogenesis of C. albicans significantly at 0.5 mg/ml concentration. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC50) of HCQ for C. albicans adhesion and biofilm formation on the polystyrene surface was at 2 mg/ml and 4 mg/ml respectively. Various methods, such as scanning electron microscopy, exploration of the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway, cell cycle analysis, and assessment of S oxygen species (ROS) generation, were employed to investigate HCQ exerting its antifungal effects. HCQ was observed to reduce ergosterol levels in the cell membranes of C. albicans in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, HCQ treatment caused a substantial arrest of the C. albicans cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase, which impeded normal cell growth. Gene expression analysis revealed upregulation of SOD2, SOD1, and CAT1 genes after HCQ treatment, while genes like HWP1, RAS1, TEC1, and CDC 35 were downregulated. The study also assessed the in vivo efficacy of HCQ in a mice model, revealing a reduction in the pathogenicity of C. albicans after HCQ treatment. These results indicate that HCQ holds for the development of novel antifungal therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sargun Tushar Basrani
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
| | - Tanjila Chandsaheb Gavandi
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
| | - Shivani Balasaheb Patil
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
| | - Nandkumar Subhash Kadam
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
- iSERA Biological Pvt Ltd., MIDC Shirala, Dist., Sangli, Maharashtra, 41540, India
| | - Dhairyasheel Vasantrao Yadav
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
- iSERA Biological Pvt Ltd., MIDC Shirala, Dist., Sangli, Maharashtra, 41540, India
| | - Sayali Ashok Chougule
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
| | - Sankunny Mohan Karuppayil
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India
| | - Ashwini Khanderao Jadhav
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, DY Patil Education Society (Deemed to be University), Kadamwadi, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, 416003, India.
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Chilamakuri SN, Kumar A, Nath AG, Gupta A, Selvaraju S, Basrani S, Jadhav A, Gulbake A. Development and In-Vitro Evaluation of Eugenol-Based Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Effectual Topical Treatment Against C. albicans. J Pharm Sci 2024; 113:772-784. [PMID: 38043682 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of the experiment is to develop and evaluate hydrogel-bearing nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with ketoconazole (KTZ) for the effective treatment of candidiasis. The eugenol was used as a liquid lipid (excipient) for the development of KTZ-loaded NLCs and was explored for anti-fungal effect. The production of NLCs involves high energy processes to generate spherical, uniform particles, having a higher percentage of entrapment efficiency (%EE) for KTZ with 89.83 ± 2.31 %. The data from differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), powder x-ray diffraction (PXRD), and attenuated total reflectance (ATR) demonstrated the KTZ dispersion in NLCs. The NLCs loaded hydrogel possessed optimum spreadability and exhibited shear thinning behavior, indicating the ease of application of the final formulation. The 6.41-fold higher transdermal flux (Jss) was governed for KTZ from KTZ-NLC than coarse-KTZ, which explains the usefulness of NLCs. The KTZ-NLCs exhibited significant 2.58 and 6.35-fold higher retention in the stratum corneum and viable epidermis of the skin. The cell cytotoxicity studies using human dermal fibroblast cell (HDFS) lines depicted the usefulness of NLCs in reducing cell toxicities for KTZ. The KTZ-NLCs were found to inhibit planktonic growth and hyphal transition and showed a larger zone of inhibition against C. albicans strains with a MIC-50 value of 0.39 μg/mL. The antibiofilm activity of KTZ-NLCs at lower concentrations, in contrast to plain KTZ, explained the interaction of developed NLCs with fungal membranes. The overall results depicted the effectiveness of the loading KTZ in the lipid matrix to achieve antifungal activity against C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarshan Naidu Chilamakuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India
| | - Ankaj Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India
| | - A Gowri Nath
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India
| | - Anshu Gupta
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India
| | - Sudhagar Selvaraju
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India
| | - Sargun Basrani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, CIR, DY Patil Education Society, Institution Deemed to be University, Kolhapur, India
| | - Ashwini Jadhav
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, CIR, DY Patil Education Society, Institution Deemed to be University, Kolhapur, India
| | - Arvind Gulbake
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Guwahati 781101, Assam, India.
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Misiurek J, Plech T, Kaproń B, Makuch-Kocka A, Szultka-Młyńska M, Buszewski B, Petruczynik A. Determination of Some Isoquinoline Alkaloids in Extracts Obtained from Selected Plants of the Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae and Fumarioideae Families by Liquid Chromatography and In Vitro and In Vivo Investigations of Their Cytotoxic Activity. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28083503. [PMID: 37110737 PMCID: PMC10143472 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28083503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Alkaloids are heterocyclic bases with widespread occurrence in nature. Plants are rich and easily accessible sources of them. Most isoquinoline alkaloids have cytotoxic activity for different types of cancer, including malignant melanoma, the most aggressive type of skin cancer. The morbidity of melanoma has increased worldwide every year. For that reason, developing new candidates for anti-melanoma drugs is highly needed. The aim of this study was to investigate the alkaloid compositions of plant extracts obtained from Macleaya cordata root, stem and leaves, Pseudofumaria lutea root and herb, Lamprocapnos spectabilis root and herb, Fumaria officinalis whole plant, Thalictrum foetidum root and herb, and Meconopsis cambrica root and herb by HPLC-DAD and LC-MS/MS. For determination of cytotoxic properties, human malignant melanoma cell line A375, human Caucasian malignant melanoma cell line G-361, and human malignant melanoma cell line SK-MEL-3 were exposed in vitro to the tested plant extracts. Based on the in vitro experiments, Lamprocapnos spectabilis herb extract was selected for further, in vivo research. The toxicity of the extract obtained from Lamprocapnos spectabilis herb was tested using an animal zebrafish model in the fish embryo toxicity test (FET) for determination of the LC50 value and non-toxic doses. Determination of the influence of the investigated extract on the number of cancer cells in a living organism was performed using a zebrafish xenograft model. Determination of the contents of selected alkaloids in different plant extracts was performed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in a reverse-phase system (RP) on a Polar RP column with a mobile phase containing acetonitrile, water and ionic liquid. The presence of these alkaloids in plant extracts was confirmed by LC-MS/MS. Preliminary cytotoxic activity of all prepared plant extracts and selected alkaloid standards was examined using human skin cancer cell lines A375, G-361, and SK-MEL-3. The cytotoxicity of the investigated extract was determined in vitro by cell viability assays (MTT). For in vivo determination of investigated extract cytotoxicity, a Danio rerio larvae xenograft model was used. All investigated plant extracts in in vitro experiments exhibited high cytotoxic activity against the tested cancer cell lines. The results obtained using the Danio rerio larvae xenograft model confirmed the anticancer activity of the extract obtained from Lamprocapnos spectabilis herb. The conducted research provides a basis for future investigations of these plant extracts for potential use in the treatment of malignant melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Misiurek
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4a, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Tomasz Plech
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical University of Lublin, Radziwiłłowska 11, 20-080 Lublin, Poland
| | - Barbara Kaproń
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Medical University of Lublin, Radziwiłłowska 11, 20-080 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Makuch-Kocka
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical University of Lublin, Radziwiłłowska 11, 20-080 Lublin, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Szultka-Młyńska
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Bogusław Buszewski
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Anna Petruczynik
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4a, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
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Gu Y, Dong J, Li J, Luo Q, Dong X, Tang G, Zhang J, Du X, Pu Q, He L, Zhao K, Han D, Xin J. Antibacterial activity and mechanism of sanguinarine against Staphylococcus aureus by interfering with the permeability of the cell wall and membrane and inducing bacterial ROS production. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1121082. [PMID: 37065245 PMCID: PMC10101331 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1121082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (SA) is representative of gram-positive bacteria. Sanguinarine chloride hydrate (SGCH) is the hydrochloride form of sanguinarine (SG), one of the main extracts of Macleaya cordata (M. cordata). There are few reports on its antibacterial mechanism against SA. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the in vitro antibacterial activity and mechanism of SGCH against SA. The inhibitory zone, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were measured, and the bactericidal activity curve was plotted. In addition, the micromorphology, alkaline phosphatase (AKP) activity, Na+K+, Ca2+Mg2+-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) activity, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) were observed and detected. The results showed that the inhibitory zone of SGCH against SA was judged as medium-sensitive; the MIC and MBC were 128 and 256 μg/mL, respectively; in the bactericidal activity curve, SGCH with 8 × MIC could completely kill SA within 24 h. SGCH was able to interfere with the integrity and permeability of the SA cell wall and membrane, as confirmed by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, the increase in extracellular AKP and Na+ K+, Ca2+ Mg2+-ATP activities as well as the fluorescein diacetate (FDA) staining experiment results. Moreover, a high concentration of SGCH could induce SA to produce large amounts of ROS. In summary, these findings revealed that SGCH has a preferable antibacterial effect on SA, providing an experimental and theoretical basis for using SG as an antibiotic substitute in animal husbandry and for the clinical control and treatment of diseases caused by SA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqing Gu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jun Dong
- Animal Quarantine Laboratory, Technology Center of Kunming Customs, Kunming, China
| | - Jing Li
- Animal Quarantine Laboratory, Technology Center of Kunming Customs, Kunming, China
| | - Qianmin Luo
- Animal Quarantine Laboratory, Technology Center of Kunming Customs, Kunming, China
| | - Xianlan Dong
- Animal Quarantine Laboratory, Technology Center of Kunming Customs, Kunming, China
| | - Guowen Tang
- College of Plant Protection, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Jiaxiang Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xuan Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Qiqi Pu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Lin He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Kaiwei Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Diangang Han
- Animal Quarantine Laboratory, Technology Center of Kunming Customs, Kunming, China
- *Correspondence: Diangang Han
| | - Jige Xin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
- Jige Xin
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Zhong H, Han L, Lu RY, Wang Y. Antifungal and Immunomodulatory Ingredients from Traditional Chinese Medicine. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 12:antibiotics12010048. [PMID: 36671249 PMCID: PMC9855100 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal infections have become a growing public health challenge due to the clinical transmission of pathogenic fungi. The currently available antifungal drugs leave very limited choices for clinical physicians to deal with such situation, not to mention the long-standing problems of emerging drug resistance, side effects and heavy economic burdens imposed to patients. Therefore, new antifungal drugs are urgently needed. Screening drugs from natural products and using synthetic biology strategies are very promising for antifungal drug development. Chinese medicine is a vast library of natural products of biologically active molecules. According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, preparations used to treat fungal diseases usually have antifungal and immunomodulatory functions. This suggests that if antifungal drugs are used in combination with immunomodulatory drugs, better results may be achieved. Studies have shown that the active components of TCM have strong antifungal or immunomodulatory effects and have broad application prospects. In this paper, the latest research progress of antifungal and immunomodulatory components of TCM is reviewed and discussed, hoping to provide inspiration for the design of novel antifungal compounds and to open up new horizons for antifungal treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhong
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Lei Han
- School of Pharmacy, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou 350122, China
| | - Ren-Yi Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yan Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Correspondence:
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Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Lophanic Acid Derivatives as Antifungal and Antibacterial Agents. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27206836. [PMID: 36296430 PMCID: PMC9611534 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27206836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to discover more promising antifungal and antibacterial agents, a series of new derivatives were designed and synthesized by structure modification based on the naturally occurring antimicrobial compound lophanic acid. The structures of all the target compounds were well characterized by spectroscopic data. The stereochemistry of these compounds was further determined through the X-ray diffraction analysis of 6a. The synthetic compounds were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities against filamentous fungi (T. rubrum, T. mentagrophytes), yeasts (C. neoformans, C. albicans) and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (MRSA, S. mutans, S. sobrinus, and E. coli). Among them, 3d and 3i are found as the most promising leads that showed potent inhibitory effects against all the tested fungal and bacterial strains except for E. coli. The presence of the C-20 carboxylic ester groups and the free hydroxy group at C-13 was found to be essential for the antifungal and antibacterial activities of the lophanic acid derivatives.
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