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Contemori S, Loeb GE, Corneil BD, Wallis G, Carroll TJ. Express Visuomotor Responses Reflect Knowledge of Both Target Locations and Contextual Rules during Reaches of Different Amplitudes. J Neurosci 2023; 43:7041-7055. [PMID: 37714709 PMCID: PMC10586536 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2069-22.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023] Open
Abstract
When humans reach to visual targets, extremely rapid (∼90 ms) target-directed responses can be observed in task-relevant proximal muscles. Such express visuomotor responses are inflexibly locked in time and space to the target and have been proposed to reflect rapid visuomotor transformations conveyed subcortically via the tecto-reticulo-spinal pathway. Previously, we showed that express visuomotor responses are sensitive to explicit cue-driven information about the target, suggesting that the express pathway can be modulated by cortical signals affording contextual prestimulus expectations. Here, we show that the express visuomotor system incorporates information about the physical hand-to-target distance and contextual rules during visuospatial tasks requiring different movement amplitudes. In one experiment, we recorded the activity from two shoulder muscles as 14 participants (6 females) reached toward targets that appeared at different distances from the reaching hand. Increasing the reaching distance facilitated the generation of frequent and large express visuomotor responses. This suggests that both the direction and amplitude of veridical hand-to-target reaches are encoded along the putative subcortical express pathway. In a second experiment, we modulated the movement amplitude by asking 12 participants (4 females) to deliberately undershoot, overshoot, or stop (control) at the target. The overshoot and undershoot tasks impaired the generation of large and frequent express visuomotor responses, consistent with the inability of the express pathway to generate responses directed toward nonveridical targets as in the anti-reach task. Our findings appear to reflect strategic, cortically driven modulation of the express visuomotor circuit to facilitate rapid and effective response initiation during target-directed actions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Express (∼90 ms) arm muscle responses that are consistently tuned toward the location of visual stimuli suggest a subcortical contribution to target-directed visuomotor behavior in humans, potentially via the tecto-reticulo-spinal pathway. Here, we show that express muscle responses are modulated appropriately to reach targets at different distances, but generally suppressed when the task required nonveridical responses to overshoot/undershoot the real target. This suggests that the tecto-reticulo-spinal pathway can be exploited strategically by the cerebral cortex to facilitate rapid initiation of effective responses during a visuospatial task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Contemori
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Human Movement Studies Building, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4067 Queensland, Australia
| | - Gerald E Loeb
- Alfred E. Mann Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90089-1112
| | - Brian D Corneil
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Guy Wallis
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Human Movement Studies Building, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4067 Queensland, Australia
| | - Timothy J Carroll
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Human Movement Studies Building, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4067 Queensland, Australia
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2
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Brenner E, Smeets JBJ. Continuous use of visual information about the position of the moving hand. Exp Brain Res 2023:10.1007/s00221-023-06658-x. [PMID: 37386195 PMCID: PMC10386923 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-023-06658-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
People generally look at a target when they want to reach for it. Doing so presumably helps them continuously update their judgments about the target's position and motion. But not looking at their hand does not prevent people from updating judgments about its position on the basis of visual information, because people do respond to experimental perturbations of visual information about the position of their hand. Here, we study such responses by adding jitter to the movement of a cursor that follows participants' fingers. We analyse the response to the jitter in a way that reveals how the vigour of the response depends on the moment during the movement at which the change in cursor position occurs. We compare the change in vigour to that for equivalent jitter in the position of the target. We find that participants respond to jitter in the position of a cursor in much the same way as they respond to jitter in the target's position. The responses are more vigorous late in the movement, when adjustments need to be made within less time, but similarly so for the cursor as for the target. The responses are weaker for the cursor, presumably because of the jitter-free kinaesthetic information about the position of the finger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeroen B J Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Brenner E, de la Malla C, Smeets JBJ. Tapping on a target: dealing with uncertainty about its position and motion. Exp Brain Res 2023; 241:81-104. [PMID: 36371477 PMCID: PMC9870842 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-022-06503-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Reaching movements are guided by estimates of the target object's location. Since the precision of instantaneous estimates is limited, one might accumulate visual information over time. However, if the object is not stationary, accumulating information can bias the estimate. How do people deal with this trade-off between improving precision and reducing the bias? To find out, we asked participants to tap on targets. The targets were stationary or moving, with jitter added to their positions. By analysing the response to the jitter, we show that people continuously use the latest available information about the target's position. When the target is moving, they combine this instantaneous target position with an extrapolation based on the target's average velocity during the last several hundred milliseconds. This strategy leads to a bias if the target's velocity changes systematically. Having people tap on accelerating targets showed that the bias that results from ignoring systematic changes in velocity is removed by compensating for endpoint errors if such errors are consistent across trials. We conclude that combining simple continuous updating of visual information with the low-pass filter characteristics of muscles, and adjusting movements to compensate for errors made in previous trials, leads to the precise and accurate human goal-directed movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli Brenner
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cristina de la Malla
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands ,grid.5841.80000 0004 1937 0247Vision and Control of Action Group, Department of Cognition, Development, and Psychology of Education, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jeroen B. J. Smeets
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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4
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How similar are responses to background motion and target displacements? Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:2667-2676. [PMID: 35972522 PMCID: PMC9510109 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-022-06436-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
When making a goal-directed movement towards a target, our hand follows abrupt background motion. This response resembles that of a shift in the target’s position. Does background motion simply change the position towards which the movement is guided? If so, the response to background motion should resemble the response to a target displacement. To find out whether this is the case, we ran two exploratory studies where we asked participants to hit a moving target at a specified moment. At various times during the hand’s movement, the background could move briefly at one of several speeds, and for various durations. The response to abrupt background motion was larger when the background moved later in the movement and when the background moved faster, in line with known responses to target displacements. The response to a second epoch of background motion was smaller than it would have been if there had been no first epoch, in contrast to responses to multiple target displacements. If the background was already moving before the target appeared, the hand even moved in the opposite direction. Thus, the response to background motion and that to a target displacement are clearly not identical, but they do share several features.
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Brenner E, Hardon H, Moesman R, Crowe EM, Smeets JBJ. The influences of target size and recent experience on the vigour of adjustments to ongoing movements. Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:1219-1229. [PMID: 35182186 PMCID: PMC9016032 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-022-06325-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
People adjust their on-going movements to changes in the environment. It takes about 100 ms to respond to an abrupt change in a target’s position. Does the vigour of such responses depend on the extent to which responding is beneficial? We asked participants to tap on targets that jumped laterally once their finger started to move. In separate blocks of trials the target either remained at the new position so that it was beneficial to respond to the jump, or jumped back almost immediately so that it was disadvantageous to do so. We also varied the target’s size, because a smaller, less vigorous adjustment is enough to place the finger within a larger target. There was a systematic relationship between the vigour of the response and the remaining time until the tap: the shorter the remaining time the more vigorous the response. This relationship did not depend on the target’s size or whether or not the target jumped back. It was already known that the vigour of responses to target jumps depends on the magnitude of the jump and on the time available for adjusting the movement to that jump. We show that the vigour of the response is precisely tuned to the time available for making the required adjustment irrespective of whether responding in this manner is beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Hidde Hardon
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ryan Moesman
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emily M Crowe
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen B J Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Bury NA, Jenkin MR, Allison RS, Harris LR. Perceiving jittering self-motion in a field of lollipops from ages 4 to 95. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241087. [PMID: 33095827 PMCID: PMC7584255 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An internal model of self-motion provides a fundamental basis for action in our daily lives, yet little is known about its development. The ability to control self-motion develops in youth and often deteriorates with advanced age. Self-motion generates relative motion between the viewer and the environment. Thus, the smoothness of the visual motion created will vary as control improves. Here, we study the influence of the smoothness of visually simulated self-motion on an observer's ability to judge how far they have travelled over a wide range of ages. Previous studies were typically highly controlled and concentrated on university students. But are such populations representative of the general public? And are there developmental and sex effects? Here, estimates of distance travelled (visual odometry) during visually induced self-motion were obtained from 466 participants drawn from visitors to a public science museum. Participants were presented with visual motion that simulated forward linear self-motion through a field of lollipops using a head-mounted virtual reality display. They judged the distance of their simulated motion by indicating when they had reached the position of a previously presented target. The simulated visual motion was presented with or without horizontal or vertical sinusoidal jitter. Participants' responses indicated that they felt they travelled further in the presence of vertical jitter. The effectiveness of the display increased with age over all jitter conditions. The estimated time for participants to feel that they had started to move also increased slightly with age. There were no differences between the sexes. These results suggest that age should be taken into account when generating motion in a virtual reality environment. Citizen science studies like this can provide a unique and valuable insight into perceptual processes in a truly representative sample of people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils-Alexander Bury
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dept. of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Visual Computing, Hochschule Bonn-Rhein-Sieg, Sankt Augustin, Germany
| | - Michael R. Jenkin
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Robert S. Allison
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Laurence R. Harris
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dept. of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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7
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Zhang Y, Smeets JBJ, Brenner E, Verschueren S, Duysens J. Effects of ageing on responses to stepping-target displacements during walking. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 121:127-140. [PMID: 32995959 PMCID: PMC7815571 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04504-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Human sensory and motor systems deteriorate with age. When walking, older adults may therefore find it more difficult to adjust their steps to new visual information, especially considering that such adjustments require control of balance as well as of foot trajectory. Our study investigates the effects of ageing on lower limb responses to unpredictable target shifts. Methods Participants walked on a treadmill with projected stepping targets that occasionally shifted in the medial or lateral direction. The shifts occurred at a random moment during the early half of the swing phase of either leg. Kinematic, kinetic and muscle activity data were collected. Results Older adults responded later and corrected for a smaller proportion of the shift than young adults. The order in which muscle activation changed was similar in both groups, with responses of gluteus medius and semitendinosus from about 120 to 140 ms after the shift. Most muscles responded slightly later to lateral target shifts in the older adults than in the young adults, but this difference was not observed for medial target shifts. Ageing delayed the behavioural responses more than it did the electromyographic (EMG) responses. Conclusions Our study suggests that older adults can adjust their walking to small target shifts during the swing phase, but not as well as young adults. Furthermore, muscle strength probably plays a substantial role in the changes in online adjustments during ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. .,Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeroen B J Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sabine Verschueren
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jacques Duysens
- Motor Control Laboratory, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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8
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Zhang Y, Smeets JBJ, Brenner E, Verschueren S, Duysens J. Fast responses to stepping-target displacements when walking. J Physiol 2020; 598:1987-2000. [PMID: 32128815 PMCID: PMC7317495 DOI: 10.1113/jp278986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Key points Goal‐directed arm movements can be adjusted at short latency to target shifts. We tested whether similar adjustments are present during walking on a treadmill with shifting stepping targets. Participants responded at short latency with an adequate gain to small shifts of the stepping targets. Movements of the feet during walking are controlled in a similar way to goal‐directed arm movements if balance is not violated.
Abstract It is well‐known that goal‐directed hand movements can be adjusted to small changes in target location with a latency of about 100 ms. We tested whether people make similar fast adjustments when a target location for foot placement changes slightly as they walk over a flat surface. Participants walked at 3 km/h on a treadmill on which stepping stones were projected. The stones were 50 cm apart in the walking direction. Every 5–8 steps, a stepping stone was unexpectedly displaced by 2.5 cm in the medio‐lateral direction. The displacement took place during the first half of the swing phase. We found fast adjustments of the foot trajectory, with a latency of about 155 ms, initiated by changes in muscle activation 123 ms after the perturbation. The responses corrected for about 80% of the perturbation. We conclude that goal‐directed movements of the foot are controlled in a similar way to those of the hand, thus also giving very fast adjustments. Goal‐directed arm movements can be adjusted at short latency to target shifts. We tested whether similar adjustments are present during walking on a treadmill with shifting stepping targets. Participants responded at short latency with an adequate gain to small shifts of the stepping targets. Movements of the feet during walking are controlled in a similar way to goal‐directed arm movements if balance is not violated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen B J Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sabine Verschueren
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jacques Duysens
- Motor Control Laboratory, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, FaBeR, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Zhang Y, Brenner E, Duysens J, Verschueren S, Smeets JBJ. Is the manual following response an attempt to compensate for inferred self-motion? Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:2549-2558. [PMID: 31342107 PMCID: PMC6751223 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05607-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
If the surrounding of a visual target unexpectedly starts to move during a fast goal-directed hand movement, the hand reflexively moves along with it. This is known as the ‘manual following response’. One explanation for this response is that it is a compensation for inferred self-motion in space. Previous studies have shown that background motion gives rise to both postural responses and deviations in goal-directed hand movements. To evaluate whether compensation for inferred self-motion is responsible for the manual responses we examined whether galvanic stimulation of the vestibular system would give rise to similar deviations in hand movements. Standing participants tried to quickly tap on targets that were presented on a horizontal screen. Participants could infer self-motion on some of the trials, either from galvanic vestibular stimulation or from background motion. Both perturbations took place during the hand movement. It took both the head and hand about 45 ms longer to respond to background motion than to respond to galvanic stimulation. The head responded in a similar manner to both types of perturbations. The hand responded about as expected to galvanic stimulation, but much more vigorously to background motion. Thus, the manual response to background motion is probably not a direct consequence of trying to compensate for inferred self-motion. Perhaps the manual following response is a consequence of an error in binding motion information to objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Zhang
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacques Duysens
- Department of Kinesiology, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sabine Verschueren
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, FaBer, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen B J Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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de la Malla C, Brenner E, de Haan EHF, Smeets JBJ. A visual illusion that influences perception and action through the dorsal pathway. Commun Biol 2019; 2:38. [PMID: 30701203 PMCID: PMC6349884 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0293-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
There are two main anatomically and physiologically defined visual pathways connecting the primary visual cortex with higher visual areas: the ventral and the dorsal pathway. The influential two-visual-systems hypothesis postulates that visual attributes are analyzed differently for different functions: in the dorsal pathway visual information is analyzed to guide actions, whereas in the ventral pathway visual information is analyzed for perceptual judgments. We here show that a person who cannot identify objects due to an extensive bilateral ventral brain lesion is able to judge the velocity at which an object moves. Moreover, both his velocity judgements and his interceptive actions are as susceptible to a motion illusion as those of people without brain lesions. These findings speak in favor of the idea that dorsal structures process information about attributes such as velocity, irrespective of whether such information is used for perceptual judgments or to guide actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina de la Malla
- Vision and Control of Action (VISCA) Group, Department of Cognition, Development and Psychology of Education, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Passeig de la Vall d’Hebron 171, 08035 Barcelona, Catalonia Spain
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 9, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eli Brenner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 9, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edward H. F. de Haan
- Department of Psychology, Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129, 1001NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen B. J. Smeets
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Van der Boechorststraat 9, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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