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De Paolis ML, Paoletti I, Zaccone C, Capone F, D'Amelio M, Krashia P. Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) at gamma frequency: an up-and-coming tool to modify the progression of Alzheimer's Disease. Transl Neurodegener 2024; 13:33. [PMID: 38926897 PMCID: PMC11210106 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-024-00423-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The last decades have witnessed huge efforts devoted to deciphering the pathological mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and to testing new drugs, with the recent FDA approval of two anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies for AD treatment. Beyond these drug-based experimentations, a number of pre-clinical and clinical trials are exploring the benefits of alternative treatments, such as non-invasive stimulation techniques on AD neuropathology and symptoms. Among the different non-invasive brain stimulation approaches, transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is gaining particular attention due to its ability to externally control gamma oscillations. Here, we outline the current knowledge concerning the clinical efficacy, safety, ease-of-use and cost-effectiveness of tACS on early and advanced AD, applied specifically at 40 Hz frequency, and also summarise pre-clinical results on validated models of AD and ongoing patient-centred trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Luisa De Paolis
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Paoletti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Zaccone
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Fioravante Capone
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200 - 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Marcello D'Amelio
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy.
- Department of Experimental Neurosciences, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Via del Fosso Di Fiorano, 64 - 00143, Rome, Italy.
| | - Paraskevi Krashia
- Department of Experimental Neurosciences, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Via del Fosso Di Fiorano, 64 - 00143, Rome, Italy
- Department of Sciences and Technologies for Sustainable Development and One Health, Università Campus Bio-Medico Di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21 - 00128, Rome, Italy
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Tzavellas NP, Tsamis KI, Katsenos AP, Davri AS, Simos YV, Nikas IP, Bellos S, Lekkas P, Kanellos FS, Konitsiotis S, Labrakakis C, Vezyraki P, Peschos D. Firing Alterations of Neurons in Alzheimer's Disease: Are They Merely a Consequence of Pathogenesis or a Pivotal Component of Disease Progression? Cells 2024; 13:434. [PMID: 38474398 DOI: 10.3390/cells13050434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, yet its underlying causes remain elusive. The conventional perspective on disease pathogenesis attributes alterations in neuronal excitability to molecular changes resulting in synaptic dysfunction. Early hyperexcitability is succeeded by a progressive cessation of electrical activity in neurons, with amyloid beta (Aβ) oligomers and tau protein hyperphosphorylation identified as the initial events leading to hyperactivity. In addition to these key proteins, voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels play a decisive role in the altered electrical properties of neurons in AD. Impaired synaptic function and reduced neuronal plasticity contribute to a vicious cycle, resulting in a reduction in the number of synapses and synaptic proteins, impacting their transportation inside the neuron. An understanding of these neurophysiological alterations, combined with abnormalities in the morphology of brain cells, emerges as a crucial avenue for new treatment investigations. This review aims to delve into the detailed exploration of electrical neuronal alterations observed in different AD models affecting single neurons and neuronal networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos P Tzavellas
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Konstantinos I Tsamis
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University Hospital of Ioannina, 455 00 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Andreas P Katsenos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Athena S Davri
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Yannis V Simos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Ilias P Nikas
- Medical School, University of Cyprus, 2029 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Stefanos Bellos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Lekkas
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Foivos S Kanellos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Spyridon Konitsiotis
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University Hospital of Ioannina, 455 00 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Charalampos Labrakakis
- Department of Biological Applications and Technology, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Patra Vezyraki
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Peschos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
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Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Ren P, Fu Y. Continuous high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation at extremely low intensity affects exploratory behavior and spatial cognition in mice. Behav Brain Res 2024; 458:114739. [PMID: 37926334 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
High-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (HF-rTMS) has been shown to be effective for cognitive intervention. However, whether HF-rTMS with extremely low intensity could influence cognitive functions is still under investigation. The present study systematically investigated the effects of continuous 40 Hz and 10 Hz rTMS on cognition in young adult mice at extremely low intensity (10 mT and 1 mT) for 11 days (30 min/day). Cognitive functions were assessed using diverse behavioral tasks, including the open field, Y-maze, and Barnes maze paradigms. We found that 40 Hz rTMS significantly impaired exploratory behavior and spatial memory in both 10 mT and 1 mT conditions. In addition, 40 Hz rTMS induced remarkably different effects on exploratory behavior between 10 mT and 1mT, compared to 10 Hz stimulation. Our results indicate that extremely low intensity rTMS can significantly alter cognitive performance depending on intensity and frequency, shedding light on the understanding of the mechanism of rTMS effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfan Zhang
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Yunbin Zhang
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Zhuangfei Chen
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Ping Ren
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Shenzhen Mental Health Center / Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518020, China.
| | - Yu Fu
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China.
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Zhang S, Guo Z, Xu Y, Mi J, Liu J, Li Z, Xie X, Xu G. Transcranial magneto-acoustic stimulation improves spatial memory and modulates hippocampal neural oscillations in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1313639. [PMID: 38384480 PMCID: PMC10879395 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1313639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction In our study, we applied transcranial magneto-acoustic stimulation (TMAS), a technique based on focused ultrasound stimulation within a static magnetic field, in the APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD) to explore the feasibility of TMAS on improving AD related spatial memory deficits and abnormal neural oscillations. Methods The mice treated with TMAS once daily for 21 days. We recorded local field potential signals in the hippocampal CA1 region of the mice after TMAS treatment with in-vivo electrophysiology and evaluated the neural rehabilitative effect of TMAS with sharp-wave ripple (SWR), gamma oscillations during SWRs, and phase-amplitude coupling (PAC). The spatial memory function of the mice was examined by the Morris water maze (MWM) task. Results We found that TMAS improved the performance of MWM related spatial cognitive functions compared with AD group. Furthermore, our results implied that TMAS alleviated abnormalities in hippocampal SWRs, increased slow gamma power during SWRs, and promoted theta-slow gamma phase-amplitude coupling. These findings suggest that TMAS could have a positive influence on spatial memory through the modulation of neural oscillations. Discussion This work emphasizes the potential of TMAS to serve as a non-invasive method for Alzheimer's disease rehabilitation and promote the application of TMAS for the treatment of more neurological and brain aging diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reliability and Intelligence of Electrical Equipment, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhongsheng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Reliability and Intelligence of Electrical Equipment, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Yihao Xu
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Jinrui Mi
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Zichun Li
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaofeng Xie
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Guizhi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Reliability and Intelligence of Electrical Equipment, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Hebei key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetism and Neural Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Bioelectromagnetic Technology and Intelligent Health, Tianjin, China
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Blanco-Duque C, Chan D, Kahn MC, Murdock MH, Tsai LH. Audiovisual gamma stimulation for the treatment of neurodegeneration. J Intern Med 2024; 295:146-170. [PMID: 38115692 PMCID: PMC10842797 DOI: 10.1111/joim.13755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of neurodegenerative disease and a health challenge with major social and economic consequences. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic potential of gamma stimulation in treating AD and delve into the possible mechanisms responsible for its positive effects. Recent studies reveal that it is feasible and safe to induce 40 Hz brain activity in AD patients through a range of 40 Hz multisensory and noninvasive electrical or magnetic stimulation methods. Although research into the clinical potential of these interventions is still in its nascent stages, these studies suggest that 40 Hz stimulation can yield beneficial effects on brain function, disease pathology, and cognitive function in individuals with AD. Specifically, we discuss studies involving 40 Hz light, auditory, and vibrotactile stimulation, as well as noninvasive techniques such as transcranial alternating current stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation. The precise mechanisms underpinning the beneficial effects of gamma stimulation in AD are not yet fully elucidated, but preclinical studies have provided relevant insights. We discuss preclinical evidence related to both neuronal and nonneuronal mechanisms that may be involved, touching upon the relevance of interneurons, neuropeptides, and specific synaptic mechanisms in translating gamma stimulation into widespread neuronal activity within the brain. We also explore the roles of microglia, astrocytes, and the vasculature in mediating the beneficial effects of gamma stimulation on brain function. Lastly, we examine upcoming clinical trials and contemplate the potential future applications of gamma stimulation in the management of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Blanco-Duque
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Diane Chan
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Martin C Kahn
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mitchell H Murdock
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Li-Huei Tsai
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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Lai MH, Yu XM, Lu Y, Wang HL, Fu W, Zhou HX, Li YL, Hu J, Xia J, Hu Z, Shan CL, Wang F, Wang C. Effectiveness and brain mechanism of multi-target transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) on motor learning in stroke patients: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2024; 25:97. [PMID: 38291500 PMCID: PMC10826150 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-024-07913-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) has proven to be an effective treatment for improving cognition, a crucial factor in motor learning. However, current studies are predominantly focused on the motor cortex, and the potential brain mechanisms responsible for the therapeutic effects are still unclear. Given the interconnected nature of motor learning within the brain network, we have proposed a novel approach known as multi-target tACS. This study aims to ascertain whether multi-target tACS is more effective than single-target stimulation in stroke patients and to further explore the potential underlying brain mechanisms by using techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHODS This study employs a double-blind, sham-controlled, randomized controlled trial design with a 2-week intervention period. Both participants and outcome assessors will remain unaware of treatment allocation throughout the study. Thirty-nine stroke patients will be recruited and randomized into three distinct groups, including the sham tACS group (SS group), the single-target tACS group (ST group), and the multi-target tACS group (MT group), at a 1:1:1 ratio. The primary outcomes are series reaction time tests (SRTTs) combined with electroencephalograms (EEGs). The secondary outcomes include motor evoked potential (MEP), central motor conduction time (CMCT), short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), intracortical facilitation (ICF), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Box and Block Test (BBT), and blood sample RNA sequencing. The tACS interventions for all three groups will be administered over a 2-week period, with outcome assessments conducted at baseline (T0) and 1 day (T1), 7 days (T2), and 14 days (T3) of the intervention phase. DISCUSSION The study's findings will determine the potential of 40-Hz tACS to improve motor learning in stroke patients. Additionally, it will compare the effectiveness of multi-target and single-target approaches, shedding light on their respective improvement effects. Through the utilization of techniques such as TMS and MRI, the study aims to uncover the underlying brain mechanisms responsible for the therapeutic impact. Furthermore, the intervention has the potential to facilitate motor learning efficiency, thereby contributing to the advancement of future stroke rehabilitation treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR2300073465. Registered on 11 July 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Hui Lai
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Yu
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Yan Lu
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Hong-Lin Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Wang Fu
- Department of Neurology, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Huan-Xia Zhou
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Yuan-Li Li
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Rehabilitation Science, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Jun Hu
- The Second Rehabilitation Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai, 200435, China
| | - Jiayi Xia
- The Second Rehabilitation Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai, 200435, China
| | - Zekai Hu
- The Second Rehabilitation Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai, 200435, China
| | - Chun-Lei Shan
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201203, China
- School of Rehabilitation Science, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Neurology, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Cong Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Seventh People's Hospital of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Datong Rd. 358, Shanghai, 200137, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine Intelligent Rehabilitation, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- School of Rehabilitation Science, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- The Second Rehabilitation Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai, 200435, China.
- Queensland Brain Institute, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia.
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Hu J, Zheng L, Guan Z, Zhong K, Huang F, Huang Q, Yang J, Li W, Li S. Sensory gamma entrainment: Impact on amyloid protein and therapeutic mechanism. Brain Res Bull 2023; 202:110750. [PMID: 37625524 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.110750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
The deposition of amyloid β peptide (Aβ) is one of the main pathological features of AD. The much-talked sensory gamma entrainment may be a new treatment for Aβ load. Here we reviewed the generation and clearance pathways of Aβ, aberrant gamma oscillation in AD, and the therapeutic effect of sensory gamma entrainment on AD. In addition, we discuss these results based on stimulus parameters and possible potential mechanisms. This provides the support for sensory gamma entrainment targeting Aβ to improve AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Hu
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Leyan Zheng
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Ziyu Guan
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Kexin Zhong
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Fankai Huang
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Qiankai Huang
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China; Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Weiyun Li
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China; Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China
| | - Shanshan Li
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China; Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China.
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