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Hao C, Russwinkel N, Haeufle DF, Beckerle P. A Commentary on Towards autonomous artificial agents with an active self: Modeling sense of control in situated action. COGN SYST RES 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2022.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Human-Robot Body Experience: An Artificial Intelligence Perspective. KUNSTLICHE INTELLIGENZ 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13218-022-00779-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
AbstractHuman body experience is remarkably flexible, which enables us to integrate passive tools as well as intelligent robotic devices into our body representation. Accordingly, it can serve as a role model to make (assistive) robots interact seamlessly with their users or to provide (humanoid) robots with a human-like self-perception and behavior generation. This article discusses the potential of understanding human body experience and applying it to robotics. Particular focus is set on how to use artificial intelligence techniques and create intelligent artificial agents from insights about human body experience. The discussion is based on a summary of the author’s habilitation thesis and combines theoretical and experimental perspectives from psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience as well as computer science, engineering, and artificial intelligence. From this, it derives directions for future developments towards creating artificial body intelligence with human-like capabilities.
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Bliek A, Bekrater-Bodmann R, Beckerle P. Cognitive Models of Limb Embodiment in Structurally Varying Bodies: A Theoretical Perspective. Front Psychol 2021; 12:716976. [PMID: 35002827 PMCID: PMC8732998 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Using the seminal rubber hand illusion and related paradigms, the last two decades unveiled the multisensory mechanisms underlying the sense of limb embodiment, that is, the cognitive integration of an artificial limb into one's body representation. Since also individuals with amputations can be induced to embody an artificial limb by multimodal sensory stimulation, it can be assumed that the involved computational mechanisms are universal and independent of the perceiver's physical integrity. This is anything but trivial, since experimentally induced embodiment has been related to the embodiment of prostheses in limb amputees, representing a crucial rehabilitative goal with clinical implications. However, until now there is no unified theoretical framework to explain limb embodiment in structurally varying bodies. In the present work, we suggest extensions of the existing Bayesian models on limb embodiment in normally-limbed persons in order to apply them to the specific situation in limb amputees lacking the limb as physical effector. We propose that adjusted weighting of included parameters of a unified modeling framework, rather than qualitatively different model structures for normally-limbed and amputated individuals, is capable of explaining embodiment in structurally varying bodies. Differences in the spatial representation of the close environment (peripersonal space) and the limb (phantom limb awareness) as well as sensorimotor learning processes associated with limb loss and the use of prostheses might be crucial modulators for embodiment of artificial limbs in individuals with limb amputation. We will discuss implications of our extended Bayesian model for basic research and clinical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adna Bliek
- Chair of Autonomous Systems and Mechatronics, Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Robin Bekrater-Bodmann
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Philipp Beckerle
- Chair of Autonomous Systems and Mechatronics, Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Babič J, Laffranchi M, Tessari F, Verstraten T, Novak D, Šarabon N, Ugurlu B, Peternel L, Torricelli D, Veneman JF. Challenges and solutions for application and wider adoption of wearable robots. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGIES 2021; 2:e14. [PMID: 38486636 PMCID: PMC10936284 DOI: 10.1017/wtc.2021.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
The science and technology of wearable robots are steadily advancing, and the use of such robots in our everyday life appears to be within reach. Nevertheless, widespread adoption of wearable robots should not be taken for granted, especially since many recent attempts to bring them to real-life applications resulted in mixed outcomes. The aim of this article is to address the current challenges that are limiting the application and wider adoption of wearable robots that are typically worn over the human body. We categorized the challenges into mechanical layout, actuation, sensing, body interface, control, human-robot interfacing and coadaptation, and benchmarking. For each category, we discuss specific challenges and the rationale for why solving them is important, followed by an overview of relevant recent works. We conclude with an opinion that summarizes possible solutions that could contribute to the wider adoption of wearable robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Babič
- Laboratory for Neuromechanics and Biorobotics, Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matteo Laffranchi
- Rehab Technologies Lab, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Federico Tessari
- Rehab Technologies Lab, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Tom Verstraten
- Robotics & Multibody Mechanics Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Domen Novak
- University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
| | - Nejc Šarabon
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia
| | - Barkan Ugurlu
- Biomechatronics Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Ozyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Luka Peternel
- Delft Haptics Lab, Department of Cognitive Robotics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Diego Torricelli
- Cajal Institute, Spanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain
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Rieznik A, Di Tella R, Schvartzman L, Babino A. Optimum Integration Procedure for Connectionist and Dynamic Field Equations. Front Neurorobot 2021; 15:670895. [PMID: 34122034 PMCID: PMC8193506 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2021.670895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Connectionist and dynamic field models consist of a set of coupled first-order differential equations describing the evolution in time of different units. We compare three numerical methods for the integration of these equations: the Euler method, and two methods we have developed and present here: a modified version of the fourth-order Runge Kutta method, and one semi-analytical method. We apply them to solve a well-known nonlinear connectionist model of retrieval in single-digit multiplication, and show that, in many regimes, the semi-analytical and modified Runge Kutta methods outperform the Euler method, in some regimes by more than three orders of magnitude. Given the outstanding difference in execution time of the methods, and that the EM is widely used, we conclude that the researchers in the field can greatly benefit from our analysis and developed methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Rieznik
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- INCYT, CONICET-INECO, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rocco Di Tella
- El Gato y La Caja, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lara Schvartzman
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Andrés Babino
- Integrative Neuroscience Lab, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, United States
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Torricelli D, Rodriguez-Guerrero C, Veneman JF, Crea S, Briem K, Lenggenhager B, Beckerle P. Benchmarking Wearable Robots: Challenges and Recommendations From Functional, User Experience, and Methodological Perspectives. Front Robot AI 2020; 7:561774. [PMID: 33501326 PMCID: PMC7805816 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2020.561774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Wearable robots (WRs) are increasingly moving out of the labs toward real-world applications. In order for WRs to be effectively and widely adopted by end-users, a common benchmarking framework needs to be established. In this article, we outline the perspectives that in our opinion are the main determinants of this endeavor, and exemplify the complex landscape into three areas. The first perspective is related to quantifying the technical performance of the device and the physical impact of the device on the user. The second one refers to the understanding of the user's perceptual, emotional, and cognitive experience of (and with) the technology. The third one proposes a strategic path for a global benchmarking methodology, composed by reproducible experimental procedures representing real-life conditions. We hope that this paper can enable developers, researchers, clinicians and end-users to efficiently identify the most promising directions for validating their technology and drive future research efforts in the short and medium term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Torricelli
- Cajal institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Rodriguez-Guerrero
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Simona Crea
- The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Pontedera, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy
| | - Kristin Briem
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Research Centre of Movement Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | | | - Philipp Beckerle
- Elastic Lightweight Robotics Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Robotics Research Institute, Technische Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute for Mechatronic Systems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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Schürmann T, Beckerle P. Personalizing Human-Agent Interaction Through Cognitive Models. Front Psychol 2020; 11:561510. [PMID: 33071887 PMCID: PMC7541964 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.561510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive modeling of human behavior has advanced the understanding of underlying processes in several domains of psychology and cognitive science. In this article, we outline how we expect cognitive modeling to improve comprehension of individual cognitive processes in human-agent interaction and, particularly, human-robot interaction (HRI). We argue that cognitive models offer advantages compared to data-analytical models, specifically for research questions with expressed interest in theories of cognitive functions. However, the implementation of cognitive models is arguably more complex than common statistical procedures. Additionally, cognitive modeling paradigms typically have an explicit commitment to an underlying computational theory. We propose a conceptual framework for designing cognitive models that aims to identify whether the use of cognitive modeling is applicable to a given research question. The framework consists of five external and internal aspects related to the modeling process: research question, level of analysis, modeling paradigms, computational properties, and iterative model development. In addition to deriving our framework from a concise literature analysis, we discuss challenges and potentials of cognitive modeling. We expect cognitive models to leverage personalized human behavior prediction, agent behavior generation, and interaction pretraining as well as adaptation, which we outline with application examples from personalized HRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Schürmann
- Work and Engineering Psychology Research Group, Department of Human Sciences, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Philipp Beckerle
- Elastic Lightweight Robotics, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Robotics Research Institute, Technische Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany.,Institute for Mechatronic Systems, Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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Endo S, Fröhner J, Musić S, Hirche S, Beckerle P. Effect of External Force on Agency in Physical Human-Machine Interaction. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:114. [PMID: 32457587 PMCID: PMC7227379 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In the advent of intelligent robotic tools for physically assisting humans, user experience, and intuitiveness in particular have become important features for control designs. However, existing works predominantly focus on performance-related measures for evaluating control systems as the subjective experience of a user by large cannot be directly observed. In this study, we therefore focus on agency-related interactions between control and embodiment in the context of physical human-machine interaction. By applying an intentional binding paradigm in a virtual, machine-assisted reaching task, we evaluate how the sense of agency of able-bodied humans is modulated by assistive force characteristics of a physically coupled device. In addition to measuring how assistive force profiles influence the sense of agency with intentional binding, we analyzed the sense of agency using a questionnaire. Remarkably, our participants reported to experience stronger agency when being appropriately assisted, although they contributed less to the control task. This is substantiated by the overall consistency of intentional binding results and the self-reported sense of agency. Our results confirm the fundamental feasibility of the sense of agency to objectively evaluate the quality of human-in-the-loop control for assistive technologies. While the underlying mechanisms causing the perceptual bias observed in the intentional binding paradigm are still to be understood, we believe that this study distinctly contributes to demonstrating how the sense of agency characterizes intuitiveness of assistance in physical human-machine interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Endo
- Chair of Information-Oriented Control, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jakob Fröhner
- Chair of Information-Oriented Control, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Selma Musić
- Chair of Information-Oriented Control, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sandra Hirche
- Chair of Information-Oriented Control, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Philipp Beckerle
- Elastic Lightweight Robotics Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Robotics Research Institute, Technische Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany.,Institute for Mechatronic Systems, Mechanical Engineering, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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The Bayesian causal inference model benefits from an informed prior to predict proprioceptive drift in the rubber foot illusion. Cogn Process 2019; 20:447-457. [PMID: 31435749 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-019-00928-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Bayesian cognitive modeling has become a prominent tool for the cognitive sciences aiming at a deeper understanding of the human mind and applications in cognitive systems, e.g., humanoid or wearable robotics. Such approaches can capture human behavior adequately with a focus on the crossmodal processing of sensory information. The rubber foot illusion is a paradigm in which such integration is relevant. After experimental stimulation, many participants perceive their real limb closer to an artificial replicate than it actually is. A measurable effect of this recalibration on localization is called the proprioceptive drift. We investigate whether the Bayesian causal inference model can estimate the proprioceptive drift observed in empirical studies. Moreover, we juxtapose two models employing informed prior distributions on limb location against an existing model assuming uniform prior distribution. The model involving empirically informed prior information yields better predictions of the proprioceptive drift regarding the rubber foot illusion when evaluated with separate experimental data. Contrary, the uniform model produces implausibly narrow position estimates that seem due to the precision ratio between the contributing sensory channels. We conclude that an informed prior on limb localization is a plausible and necessary modification to the Bayesian causal inference model when applied to limb illusions. Future research could overcome the remaining discrepancy between model predictions and empirical observation by investigating the changes in sensory precision as a function of distance between the eyes and respective limbs.
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