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Herr R, Regnier A, Belorgeot M, Mélotte E, Simon J, Sanz LRD, Lejeune N, Chavet V, Paluszkiewicz J, Pellas F, Chevallier JB, Laureys S, Kaux JF, Gosseries O. Swallowing Assessment in Post-Comatose Patients: A Feasibility Study on the SWADOC Tool. J Clin Med 2024; 13:3268. [PMID: 38892977 PMCID: PMC11173236 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13113268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: After a severe brain injury and a coma, patients may develop disorders of consciousness (DoC), frequently accompanied by severe dysphagia. The evaluation and therapy of swallowing are therefore essential aspects of their management. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the SWallowing Assessment in Disorders of Consciousness (SWADOC) tool in the assessment of swallowing in post-comatose patients. Here, we validate its quantitative items, describe preliminary results and identify limitations. Methods: Fourteen post-comatose patients were repeatedly evaluated with the Simplified Evaluation of CONsciousness Disorders (SECONDs) and with the SWADOC. Results: The internal consistency of the oral and pharyngeal subscales of the SWADOC was good. The test-retest reliability showed that all items, all subscores and the total score were stable except for two items (endo-buccal secretions and bronchial congestion). A comparison to the Facial Oral Tract Therapy Swallowing Assessment of Saliva (F.O.T.T-SAS) confirmed that scoring with the SWADOC offers a greater potential for quantitative observations in assessing swallowing abilities among patients with DoC. The SECONDs scores and SWADOC total scores showed a significant positive correlation (τ = 0.78, p < 0.001). Conclusions: This study provides preliminary but encouraging results on the psychometric properties of the SWADOC tool. It shows that this tool is relevant and feasible as a bedside assessment of dysphagia in patients with DoC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanne Herr
- Neurology Department, Haguenau Hospital, 67500 Haguenau, France;
| | - Amandine Regnier
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University of Liège and University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Marion Belorgeot
- Physical Medecine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Nîmes, 30029 Nîmes, France; (M.B.); (F.P.)
| | - Evelyne Mélotte
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Jessica Simon
- Psychology and Neuroscience of Cognition Research Unit (PsyNCog), University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Leandro R. D. Sanz
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Lejeune
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
- William Lennox Neurological Hospital Center, 1340 Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institute of NeuroScience, Université Catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Valérie Chavet
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, Center for Traumatology and Rehabilitation Erasme, 1070 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Jenny Paluszkiewicz
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, Neurological Center for Functional Rehabilitation, University Hospital of Liège, 4557 Fraiture, Belgium;
| | - Frédéric Pellas
- Physical Medecine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Nîmes, 30029 Nîmes, France; (M.B.); (F.P.)
| | | | - Steven Laureys
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
- Joint International Research Unit on Consciousness, CERVO Brain Research Centre, Laval University, Québec, QC G1J2G3, Canada
| | - Jean-François Kaux
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University of Liège and University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Olivia Gosseries
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.R.); (E.M.); (L.R.D.S.); (N.L.); (S.L.)
- Centre du Cerveau2, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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2
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Prum G, Cadeau A, Mallart R, Verin E. Feeding modality evolution in traumatic brain injury patients with severe alteration of consciousness: A observational study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e33831. [PMID: 37653826 PMCID: PMC10470743 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000033831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare feeding modalities and the level of consciousness in patients with a severe brain injury during reeducation and rehabilitation. The clinical data of vegetative state or minimal conscious state due to severe traumatic brain injury hospitalized in a coma arousal unit were collected from 2012 to 2019. Feeding modalities were evaluated clinically and with functional endoscopy evaluation of swallowing or video fluoroscopy and functional oral intake scale. Evolution of consciousness was evaluated using Wessex Head Injury Matrix scale (WHIM). Comparison between WHIM score and feeding modalities were performed at admission and at discharge of the arousal unit. Of the 93 patients considered, 33 were included corresponding to inclusion criteria (traumatic brain injury, disorder of consciousness and age > 18 years). The mean age was 44.8 ± 16.8 years, and there were 6 females for 27 males. At admission, all patients were fed by gastrostomy (n = 25) or by nasogastric tube (n = 8) and 27 had a tracheostomy. At discharge, 10 patients keep an exclusive alimentation by gastrostomy (Group 1, G1) as 23 had exclusive oral feeding (Group 2, G2). The score of the WHIM at admission was identical in both groups (21.7 ± 10.9 (G1) vs. 21.0 ± 15.33 (G2) (ns)). At discharge, WHIM increased to 38.3 ± 15.4 in G1 and to 49.8 ± 9.7 in G2 (P < .05). WHIM score was significantly higher in G2 than in G1 (P < .05). There was a positive correlation between functional oral intake scale and WHIM at discharge. Our results demonstrated that recovery of oral feeding in patients with a severe traumatic brain injury appeared in those who had the better improvement of consciousness level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégoire Prum
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
- Rouen Laboratory of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Rouen Normandy University, Rouen, France
| | - Anna Cadeau
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
| | - Remi Mallart
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
| | - Eric Verin
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
- Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
- EA 3830, Research Group on Ventilatory Handicap, GRHV, Normandy University, Rouen, France
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3
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Jang SH, Kwak S, Lee MY. Prognosis prediction for impaired consciousness recovery in stroke patients using videofluoroscopic swallowing study: A retrospective observational study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e33860. [PMID: 37335688 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000033860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Prognosis prediction of impaired consciousness is clinically important for establishing therapeutic strategies, determining a rehabilitative goal and functional outcome, and estimating rehabilitative therapy duration. In this study, we investigated the prognosis prediction value of videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS) in recovery of impaired consciousness in stroke patients. Fifty-one patients with impaired consciousness who underwent VFSS during the early stage of stroke between 2017 and 2021 were recruited in this retrospective study. VFSS were performed using modified Logemann protocol, and bonorex was used as the liquid contrast medium. The penetration-aspiration scale (PAS) was graded for all patients, and they were classified into 2 groups depending on the presence of aspiration on liquid material: the aspiration-positive group with a PAS score ≥ 6, and the aspiration-negative group with a PAS score < 6. The coma recovery scale-revised (CRS-R) was used to evaluate patients' conscious state at the time of VFSS and 3 months after. Statistical analysis was performed using independent t test and Pearson's correlation. The increase in total CRS-R score from time of VFSS to 3 months later was greater in aspiration-negative group than in aspiration-positive group (P < .05). A moderate negative correlation was observed between liquid PAS score and the increase in total CRS-R score (r = -0.499, P < .05). Among 6 CRS-R subscales, a strong negative correlation was observed between liquid PAS score and the communication score increase (r = -0.563, P < .05), while moderate negative correlations were detected between liquid PAS score and the increases in auditory (r = -0.465, P < .05), motor (r = -0.372, P < .05), oromotor (r = -0.426, P < .05), and arousal (r = -0.368, P < .05) scores. We observed that patients without aspiration on videofluoroscopic swallowing study showed better recovery of impaired consciousness, and the degree of penetration and aspiration had a predictive value for impaired consciousness prognosis in the early stage of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Ho Jang
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, College of Medicine, Yeungnam University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
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4
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Theytaz F, Vuistiner A, Schweizer V, Crépin A, Sandu K, Chaouch A, Piquilloud L, Lecciso G, Coombes K, Diserens K. Feasibility study of the Nox-T3 device to detect swallowing and respiration pattern in neurologically impaired patients in the acute phase. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7325. [PMID: 37147335 PMCID: PMC10163003 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32628-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysphagia is a frequent complication in neurologically impaired patients, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia and thus prolonged hospitalization or even death. It is essential therefore, to detect and assess dysphagia early for best patient care. Fiberoptic endoscopic and Videofluoroscopy evaluation of swallowing are the gold standard exams in swallowing studies but neither are perfectly suitable for patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC). In this study, we aimed to find the sensitivity and specificity of the Nox-T3 sleep monitor for detection of swallowing. A combination of submental and peri-laryngeal surface electromyography, nasal cannulas and respiratory inductance plethysmography belts connected to Nox-T 3 allows recording swallowing events and their coordination with breathing, providing time-coordinated patterns of muscular and respiratory activity. We compared Nox-T3 swallowing capture to manual swallowing detection on fourteen DOC patients. The Nox-T3 method identified swallow events with a sensitivity of 95% and a specificity of 99%. In addition, Nox-T3 has qualitative contributions, such as visualization of the swallowing apnea in the respiratory cycle which provide additional information on the swallowing act that is useful to clinicians in the management and rehabilitation of the patient. These results suggest that Nox-T3 could be used for swallowing detection in DOC patients and support its continued clinical use for swallowing disorder investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Theytaz
- University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Hôpital Fribourgeois, 1752, Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland.
| | - Aline Vuistiner
- Phoniatrics and Speech Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Valérie Schweizer
- Phoniatrics and Speech Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adélie Crépin
- Phoniatrics and Speech Therapy Unit, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre Hospitalier du Valais Romand, 1951, Sion, Switzerland
| | - Kishore Sandu
- Airway Unit, Department of Otorhino-Laryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aziz Chaouch
- Division of Biostatistics, Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lise Piquilloud
- Adult Intensive Care Unit, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gianpaolo Lecciso
- Centre d'investigation et de Recherche sur le Sommeil, Rue du Bugnon 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kay Coombes
- ARCOS, Malvern Centre, Hatherton Lodge, Avenue Road, Malvern Worcestershire, WR14 3AG, UK
| | - Karin Diserens
- Acute Neurorehabilitation Unit, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Rue du Bugnon, 46, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Mélotte E, Maudoux A, Panda R, Kaux JF, Lagier A, Herr R, Belorgeot M, Laureys S, Gosseries O. Links Between Swallowing and Consciousness: A Narrative Review. Dysphagia 2023; 38:42-64. [PMID: 35773497 DOI: 10.1007/s00455-022-10452-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
This literature review explores a wide range of themes addressing the links between swallowing and consciousness. Signs of consciousness are historically based on the principle of differentiating reflexive from volitional behaviors. We show that the sequencing of the components of swallowing falls on a continuum of voluntary to reflex behaviors and we describe several types of volitional and non-volitional swallowing tasks. The frequency, speed of initiation of the swallowing reflex, efficacy of the pharyngeal phase of swallowing and coordination between respiration and swallowing are influenced by the level of consciousness during non-pathological modifications of consciousness such as sleep and general anesthesia. In patients with severe brain injury, the level of consciousness is associated with several components related to swallowing, such as the possibility of extubation, risk of pneumonia, type of feeding or components directly related to swallowing such as oral or pharyngeal abnormalities. Based on our theoretical and empirical analysis, the efficacy of the oral phase and the ability to receive exclusive oral feeding seem to be the most robust signs of consciousness related to swallowing in patients with disorders of consciousness. Components of the pharyngeal phase (in terms of abilities of saliva management) and evoked cough may be influenced by consciousness, but further studies are necessary to determine if they constitute signs of consciousness as such or only cortically mediated behaviors. This review also highlights the critical lack of tools and techniques to assess and treat dysphagia in patients with disorders of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Mélotte
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University and University Hospital of Liège, Avenue de l'Hopital 1, 4000, Liège, Belgium.
- Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
| | - Audrey Maudoux
- Sensation and Perception Research Group, GIGA, University and University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Department, Robert Debré University Hospital, APHP, Paris, France
| | - Rajanikant Panda
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Jean-François Kaux
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University and University Hospital of Liège, Avenue de l'Hopital 1, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Aude Lagier
- Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Department, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Roxanne Herr
- Department of Speech and Language Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Marion Belorgeot
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Nîmes, Nîmes, France
| | - Steven Laureys
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Olivia Gosseries
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Centre du Cerveau², University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Screening Tools Designed to Assess and Evaluate Oropharyngeal Dysphagia in Adult Patients: A Scoping Review. NURSING REPORTS 2022; 12:245-258. [PMID: 35466245 PMCID: PMC9036293 DOI: 10.3390/nursrep12020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oropharyngeal Dysphagia (OD) significantly decreases a patient’s quality of life and poses a high economic burden to institutions. In this sense, evaluation and assessment are important interventions for health professionals, although current tools and instruments are multiple and are dispersed in the literature. The aim of this review was to map existing screening tools to assess and evaluate OD in adult patients, identify their relevant clinical parameters and respective contexts of use and provide a systematic approach and summary to better inform practice. A scoping review was developed guided by the JBI methodology and using PRISMA-ScR to report results published between 2014 and 2021, in English, Spanish and Portuguese. Databases included Medline, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL Complete, Scielo, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, OpenGrey and B-On. Mendeley was used to store and screen data. A total of 33 studies were included in the study, of which 19 tools were identified, some being intervention-based tools and others an algorithm for decision. The most common context used was in the general population and older adults. Regarding clinical parameters, the most common were food consistency, presence of the cough reflex, swallowing effort, voice changes and weight. As oropharyngeal dysphagia concerns important risks for the patient, a rigorous assessment must be performed. In this sense, the review identified specific disease-related tools and more general instruments, and it is an important contribution to more efficient dysphagia screening and prevention.
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7
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Checklin M, Dahl T, Tomolo G. Feasibility and Safety of Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing in People with Disorder of Consciousness: A Systematic Review. Dysphagia 2021; 37:778-787. [PMID: 34142244 DOI: 10.1007/s00455-021-10327-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
People with disorders of consciousness (DoC) often receive nutrition via a feeding tube and the swallowing ability in this population is not fully understood. In particular, fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) with people with DoC requires further investigation. The aim of this systematic review is to collate, assess and summarise the current evidence of whether FEES is feasible and safe with people with DoC. Multiple health databases were searched in November 2019 to identify studies which used FEES with people with DoC. Data extraction included demographic information, adverse events reported and outcomes related to oral feeding. The Diagnostic Accuracy Quality Scale (DAQS) was used to assess the quality of the studies. In total only four studies were found, all of which had a high risk of bias. Many participants went from nil by mouth to some degree of oral diet sometime after the FEES was completed with low reporting of adverse events associated with FEES. This suggests a potential for the use of FEES in people with DoC. However, the evidence is low and further studies are recommended to improve understanding of FEES with people with DoC. Recommendations for clinical practice and areas for future research are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Checklin
- Epworth Healthcare, 29 Erin Street, Richmond, VIC, 3121, Australia.
| | - Tanya Dahl
- Epworth Healthcare, 29 Erin Street, Richmond, VIC, 3121, Australia.,NeuroRehab Allied Health Network, 76 Mahoneys Rd, Thomastown, VIC, 3074, Australia
| | - Gracie Tomolo
- Alfred Health, 55 Commercial Rd, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
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Mélotte E, Belorgeot M, Herr R, Simon J, Kaux JF, Laureys S, Sanz LRD, Lagier A, Morsomme D, Pellas F, Gosseries O. The Development and Validation of the SWADOC: A Study Protocol for a Multicenter Prospective Cohort Study. Front Neurol 2021; 12:662634. [PMID: 33995257 PMCID: PMC8116670 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.662634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: After a coma, patients with severe brain injury may present disorders of consciousness (DOC). A substantial proportion of these patients also suffer from severe dysphagia. Assessment of and therapy for swallowing disabilities of patients with DOC are essential because dysphagia has major functional consequences and comorbidities. Dysphagia evaluation in patients with DOC is impeded by the lack of adapted tools. The first aim of this study was to create a new tool, the SWallowing Assessment in Disorders Of Consciousness (SWADOC), and propose a validation protocol. The SWADOC was developed to help therapists assess factors related to swallowing in patients with DOC. The second aim was to investigate the relationship between patients' level of consciousness and SWADOC items and scores. Method/Design: In this multicenter prospective cohort, 104 patients with DOC will be tested three times over five consecutive days with the SWADOC. Statistical analyses will focus on the reliability and validity of the SWADOC, especially the intrarater and interrater reliability, internal consistency, measures of dispersion, and concurrent validity with the Facial Oral Tract Therapy Swallowing Assessment of Saliva (FOTT-SAS). The level of consciousness will be assessed with the Simplified Evaluation of CONsciousness Disorders (SECONDs) and the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R). Discussion: The assessment of swallowing abilities among patients with DOC is the first necessary step toward the development of a customized dysphagia care plan. A validated scoring tool will be essential for clinicians to better assess dysphagia in patients with DOC and document the evolution of their disorders. Trial Registration: NCT04706689.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Mélotte
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Marion Belorgeot
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Nîmes, Nîmes, France
| | - Roxanne Herr
- Department of Speech and Language Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jessica Simon
- Psychology and Neuroscience of Cognition, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Jean-François Kaux
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Steven Laureys
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Leandro R D Sanz
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Aude Lagier
- Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Department, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Dominique Morsomme
- Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery Department, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Frederic Pellas
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Department, University Hospital of Nîmes, Nîmes, France
| | - Olivia Gosseries
- Coma Science Group, GIGA-Consciousness, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Centre du Cerveau, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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